Mongol invasion of Java

The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan tried to invade the island of Java in 1293. Java is now part of Indonesia. The Yuan dynasty sent between 20,000 and 30,000 soldiers. They wanted to punish the ruler of Singhasari, named Kertanegara, because he had refused to give them gifts and hurt one of their messengers.

However, by the time the soldiers arrived, Kertanegara had been killed, and the kingdom of Singhasari had been taken over by another kingdom called Kediri. So the Yuan soldiers asked Kediri to agree to work with them instead.

After a tough fight, Kediri agreed, but they were betrayed by their friend, the kingdom of Majapahit, led by a leader named Raden Wijaya. In the end, the Yuan soldiers could not win, but the new kingdom of Majapahit succeeded in gaining an important victory.

Background

Kublai, the leader of the Yuan dynasty, sent messengers to many lands asking them to pay tribute and accept the rule of Yuan China. One of these messengers, Men-shi or Meng-qi (孟琪), was sent to Java (Singhasari). The king of Singhasari, Kertanegara, treated Men-shi poorly, branding his face and cutting off his ears. This angered Kublai Khan, who ordered a punishment attack against Kertanegara in 1292.

The attack aimed not just to punish Singhasari but also to make nearby countries submit to Yuan control, helping Yuan China control important sea trade routes. About 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers were gathered from areas like Fujian, Jiangxi, and Huguang in southern China, along with many ships for the journey.

A Chinese-style cannon found in Java, made of bronze and weighs about 15 kg. Unknown origin, it is either Chinese-made or a Javanese copy. It may be used as anti-ship cannon or as a mortar, firing large cannonballs or bombs.

Before the Yuan forces arrived, big changes happened in Java. After winning a battle against Malayu Dharmasraya in Sumatra, Singhasari became powerful. But in 1292, Jayakatwang, a leader from Kediri, rebelled against Kertanegara. His forces attacked Singhasari from different directions. The capital city of Kutaraja was captured, and Kertanegara was killed during a special ceremony. This ended the Singhasari Kingdom. Later, a new settlement called Majapahit was created by someone named Raden Wijaya.

Military composition

Battle scene from the main temple of Penataran temple complex, 1269 saka or 1347 AD.

There were 5,000 soldiers led by Shi Bi, 2,000 from Fujian Province, and soldiers from Jiangxi, Fujian, and Huguang provinces. The soldiers likely wore simple armor and used weapons like long spears, axes, bows, and special throwing devices. They also had horses.

Records say the Javanese army had a very large number of soldiers, but modern thoughts believe it was closer to the same size as the Yuan army, around 20,000 to 30,000 men. The Javanese soldiers often had little armor, with many being temporary fighters. Some wore simple metal protection. Their ships were large and could carry many men, making their navy stronger than the Chinese ships at the time.

Invasion

The emperor of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, ordered an attack on the island of Java in March 1292. The Yuan forces left from the port of Quanzhou and sailed along the coasts of Trần dynasty, Dai Viet, and Champa. They stopped at Ko-lan (Gelam island) to plan their next steps. On January 22, 1293, Yighmish went ahead to deliver the emperor's orders to Java. The main fleet sailed to Karimun Jawa and then to Tuban. They may have damaged the town of Tuban and nearby villages.

Arrival

Kublai Khan's fleet passing through the Indonesian archipelago, by Sir Henry Yule (1871)

When the Yuan army reached Java, Raden Wijaya sent a message saying that Kertanagara had been killed and that Jayakatwang was now the ruler. Wijaya joined forces with the Yuan army to fight against Jayakatwang and gave them a map of the area Kalang. Wijaya attacked Jayakatwang but failed, so he asked the Yuan army for help. In return, the Yuan generals asked for his loyalty, which he promised, including giving two princesses as tribute if they succeeded in defeating Kediri.

Battle of the Kali Mas

On March 22, all troops gathered at Kali Mas. This river was the gateway to Java, and they planned to battle there. A Javanese minister tried to block the river with boats, but the Yuan commanders set up camp and moved their troops forward together. The minister abandoned his boats and fled. The Yuan forces seized over 100 large boats with special designs at the front.

Painting of a 14th-century Yuan junk. Yuan naval armada consisted of this kind of ship.

A large part of the army stayed to guard the river’s mouth, while the main troops moved forward. Raden Wijaya’s messenger told the Yuan army that the king of Kediri had chased him to Majapahit and asked for protection. Because they couldn’t locate Kediri’s army, the Yuan army went back to Kali Mas. When they learned the enemy would arrive that night, they moved toward Majapahit.

Attack by the Kediri

On April 14, Kediri’s army attacked from three directions. On April 15, Yighmish led troops to fight in the southwest but couldn’t find them. Gao Xing fought in the southeast and forced the enemy into the mountains. Later, enemy troops came from the southeast again, and Gao Xing attacked and defeated them in the evening.

Battle of the Brantas

21st-century view of Brantas river in Kediri.

On April 22, the troops split into three groups to attack Kediri, planning to meet on April 26 in Daha after hearing cannon fire. The first group sailed along the river. The second, led by Yighmish, marched along the eastern bank, while the third, led by Gao Xing, marched along the western bank. Raden Wijaya and his troops followed behind.

Battle of Daha

Wijaya's ambushes against Yuan

After Jayakatwang was captured, Raden Wijaya returned to Majapahit, saying he needed to prepare his tribute. Shi Bi and Yighmish allowed him to go back, but Gao Xing warned against it. Wijaya asked the Yuan forces to come unarmed, saying the princesses couldn’t bear to see weapons.

Two hundred unarmed Yuan soldiers, led by two officers, went to Raden Wijaya's country, but Wijaya quickly turned against them and ambushed the group. He then attacked the main Yuan camp by surprise, killing many and forcing the rest to flee to their ships. Shi Bi was left behind and had to fight his way eastward through difficult terrain. Wijaya didn’t attack the Mongols directly but used tactics to wear down the enemy. During the retreat, the Yuan army lost some of their captured goods.

The Yuan forces had to leave because the winds that would carry them home were about to end, leaving them on the island for six months. Jayakatwang wrote a poem while captive, but the Mongols killed him and his son before leaving. They sailed back to Quanzhou on May 31 and arrived in China in August 1293. They brought back Jayakatwang’s children and some officers, along with a map, population records, and valuable items like incense, perfumes, and textiles worth over 500,000 taels of silver.

Aftermath

The three Yuan generals returned to their empire after losing many soldiers in an ambush. Shi Bi and Yighmish faced punishment but were later forgiven. Gao Xing was rewarded for his efforts.

This failed invasion was the last one during Kublai Khan's rule. In contrast, Majapahit grew to become the strongest state in the area at the time. Although Kublai Khan planned another attack on Java with a much larger army, these plans were canceled after his death. Travelers later noted that Java had been attacked by the Mongols more than once.

This invasion might have been the first time gunpowder was used in the Nusantara archipelago. After the invasion, Javanese shipbuilders began using Chinese methods, creating a new type of ship that combined both Chinese and local techniques.

Legacy

The Mongols left two special writings on Serutu Island on February 25, 1293. These writings are called the Pasir Kapal and the Pasir Cina inscriptions.