Pomo

The Pomo are a Native American people of California. Their historical lands were in Northern California, stretching from the Pacific Coast to Clear Lake, mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point. A small group called the Tceefoka, or Northeastern Pomo, lived near present-day Stonyford, Colusa County, separated from the main Pomo lands by Yuki and Wintuan speakers.

The name Pomo comes from Pomo words meaning "those who live at red earth hole." It was first the name of a village in southern Potter Valley, close to today’s Pomo in Mendocino County. The name may also refer to red earth or clay found in the area, rich in minerals used for making beads.

Over time, by the year 1877, the word Pomo grew to mean not just the language but the whole group of people who spoke it. Today, the Pomo people continue to be known by this name.

History

The Pomo people were originally linked by location, language, and culture. They lived in small groups or bands connected by family and marriage.

Precontact

The Pomo are believed to have come from Hokan-speaking peoples who moved into the area near Clear Lake around 7000 BCE. Another theory suggests they lived in the Sonoma region where redwood forests met valleys and woodlands, with Clear Lake providing many resources. Around 4000 to 5000 BCE, some moved to areas near today's Russian River Valley and Ukiah. Their language split into western, southern, central, and northern Pomoan.

Other people, possibly Yukian speakers, lived in the Russian River Valley and Lake Sonoma areas before the Pomo arrived and took over the region. Local economy based on women processing acorns with mortar and pestle, first seen by Spanish in Central California, may have developed during the Mostin culture period around 8500–6300 BP in the Clear Lake Basin.

Tolay Lake site

More than a thousand charmstones and many arrowheads have been found at Tolay Lake, southern Sonoma County, used by both Pomo and Coast Miwok people. The lake was a sacred place for ceremonies and healing.

Lake Sonoma sites

• At the "broken bridge" site, researchers found it was inhabited around 3280 BCE, the oldest known settlement in the valley. It is part of the Skaggs Phase (3000–500 BCE).
• "Oregon Oak Place" was dated to 1843 BCE; it seems this remote area was only sparsely inhabited before the Pomo arrived.

Both Skaggs-Phase sites had millstones and handstones for grinding seeds and nuts. The villages may have been used for hunting or temporary stays. Obsidian from Mount Konocti in Lake County was used rarely. There were no petroglyphs. People lived only along major creeks.

The "Dry Creek" Phase lasted from 500 BCE to 1300 CE. During this time, people settled the lands more permanently. A Pomo group took over the lands from earlier peoples. They created 14 additional sites in Warm Springs and Upper Dry Creek areas. Bowls, mortars, and pestles appeared, likely used by women to process acorns. The sites became more settled and complex. Trade expanded beyond the region. Decorative beads and ornaments were made, and about half of the artifacts were made of obsidian. Steatite or soapstone objects were also found, which were traded from as far as Catalina Island off the coast of Los Angeles County.

The next phase, the "Smith Phase," lasted from 1300 CE to the mid-19th century. This period saw 30 mapped sites showing gradual changes. Archery became important, benefiting the population. Shell beads remained a major currency in Central California, with many drills found for making beads.

Post contact

When Europeans arrived, there were estimated 8,000 to 21,000 Pomo among 70 tribes speaking seven Pomo languages. Life changed with the arrival of Russians at Fort Ross (1812 to 1841) and Spanish missionaries and European-American settlers. The Pomo near the coast and Fort Ross, known as the Kashaya, traded with the Russians.

Spanish missionaries took many southern Pomo to missions between 1821 and 1828. Those remaining in Santa Rosa were called Cainameros. In the Russian River Valley, missionaries affected the Makahmo Pomo of Cloverdale, causing many to leave. Some Pomo fled to Upper Dry Creek Area. Archaeologists think European and American settlers caused Pomo villages to become more centralized for defense and support.

The Pomo suffered from diseases like cholera and smallpox brought by settlers, to which they had no immunity. In 1837, a smallpox epidemic from Fort Ross caused many deaths in Sonoma and Napa regions. Mission conditions were harsh, and many Pomo died.

The Russian River Valley was settled in 1850 by gold seekers, and the Lake Sonoma Valley was claimed for homesteads. The U.S. government forced many Pomo onto reservations. Some Pomo became ranch laborers; others lived in refugee villages.

During this time, two settlers named Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone treated Pomo people very harshly. In response, Pomo people defended themselves.

Shortly after, in 1851 and 1852, the U.S. government established four reservations for the Pomo in California. Pomo were also forced to relocate to Round Valley in 1856. By the mid-1850s, the population dropped from an estimated 3,000 to about 400 due to disease, conflict, and relocation.

From 1891 to 1935, artist Grace Hudson painted over 600 portraits of Pomo individuals near Ukiah. Her artwork showed everyday life of the Pomo during a time of change.

Population

Demographics

In 1770, there were about 8,000 Pomo people. By 1851, their numbers dropped to between 3,500 and 5,000, and by 1880, only about 1,450 remained. By the 1990 Census, the population grew to 4,766, and according to the 2010 United States Census, there are 10,308 Pomo people in the United States, with most living in California.

Languages

The Pomo people speak a group of seven different languages, such as Northern Pomo, Northeastern Pomo, and Kashaya. These languages are very different from each other. After European settlers came, many of these languages were lost because people were encouraged to speak only English. Today, some Pomo languages are being brought back to life by the Clear Lake Pomo Cultural Preservation Foundation.

Culture

The Pomo people are a group of Native American communities from Northern California. They lived in many small villages and depended on fishing, hunting, and gathering for food. Their diet included salmon, wild greens, berries, mushrooms, and small animals. Acorns were a main food source.

Religion

The Pomo people believed in many spirits and held special ceremonies with dancing and acting. They had important rites for young people becoming adults and believed in a spirit called Kuksu who helped heal people. They also told many stories about their ancestor, Coyote.

The Pomo had many stories, myths, and legends that were passed down through generations.

Ethnobotany

Carex roots were used by the Pomo to make baskets and fishing traps, as well as torches.

Basket weaving tradition

Pomo baskets made by Pomo Indian women of Northern California are known around the world for their beautiful appearance, skill in making, and many uses. Women mostly made baskets for cooking, storing food, and special ceremonies, while men made baskets for fishing, traps, and carrying babies.

Making these baskets needed great skill and knowledge of materials that changed with the seasons. Baskets were often covered with bright red feathers from woodpeckers, and beads and shell pendants were added. Making these special baskets could take months or even years.

The materials for baskets included many plants like swamp canes, grass, willow, and roots. These materials were collected, dried, cleaned, and sometimes dyed. Women used three main ways to weave: plaiting, coiling, and twining. Basket designs had special meanings, like the Spirit Door, which let good spirits inside.

Baskets were very important in Pomo daily life. They were used to carry babies, collect food, store and cook food, and even as small boats. Basket weaving was a sacred tradition for the Pomo tribe.

A market for authentic baskets grew in the late 1800s, lasting until the 1930s. Two Pomo people, William Ralganal Benson and his wife, Mary Knight Benson, became known for selling their baskets to collectors and museums.

Even after losing much of their land, this period marked a turning point for the Pomo people. From 1852 to 1878, many worked to revive their culture and find peace. They began to make and sell baskets again, which helped them buy land and build a new future. Women taught each other basket weaving, preserving this important tradition.

Pomo basket weaving is still valued today by the Pomo people and others. The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, a recognized tribe, continues this tradition. One master weaver is Julia F. Parker, who learned from other skilled weavers. Her baskets are in museums and she has even given them to royalty.

Baskets are made from plants like sedge root, willow, and bulrush, along with feathers and shells. Gathering materials was done carefully to protect the land. The process of dyeing and weaving takes a lot of time, so baskets are rare and valuable. Even though some tried to take advantage of the artists, basket weaving provided important income for Pomo women when other ways of living were no longer possible.

Villages and communities

Today, federally recognized tribes have special relationships with the United States government. These tribes are called "domestic dependent nations." They have some control over their own affairs but are still under the government's care. Federally recognized Pomo tribes live in Sonoma, Lake, and Mendocino counties. Some of these tribes include:

• Big Valley Band of Pomo Indians of the Big Valley Rancheria
• Cloverdale Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
• Coyote Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
• Dry Creek Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
• Elem Indian Colony of Pomo Indians of the Sulphur Bank Rancheria
• Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria (a tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo)
• Guidiville Rancheria of California
• Habematolel Pomo of Upper Lake
• Hopland Band of Pomo Indians of the Hopland Rancheria
• Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria
• Koi Nation of the Lower Lake Rancheria
• Lytton Rancheria of California
• Manchester Band of Pomo Indians of the Manchester Rancheria
• Middletown Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
• Pinoleville Pomo Nation
• Potter Valley Tribe
• Redwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
• Robinson Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
• Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation (a confederation of several tribes, including Pomo)
• Scotts Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
• Sherwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Many Pomo people faced challenges in the past due to laws that affected their lands. Some tribes lost their special status and access to support. But in 1983, a court decision helped restore the status of some tribes.

The Pomo people were traditionally divided into several groups, each with its own language. Though these groups did not share one leader, they had some cultural similarities. Some of these groups included:

• Kashia (Southwestern Pomo)
• Southern Pomo
• Central Pomo
• Northern Pomo
• Tceefoka (Northeastern or Salt Pomo)
• Eastern Pomo (Clear Lake Pomo)
• Elem Pomo (Southeastern Pomo)

Here is a list of historical Pomo villages and tribes:

• Balló Kaì Pomo, "Oat Valley People"
• Batemdikáyi
• Búldam Pomo (Rio Grande or Big River)
• Chawishek
• Choam Chadila Pomo (Capello)
• Chwachamajù
• Dápishul Pomo (Redwood Canyon)
• Eastern People (Clear Lake near Lakeport)
• Erío (mouth of Russian River)
• Erússi (Fort Ross)
• Gallinoméro (Russian River Valley below Cloverdale and in Dry Creek Valley)
• Gualála (northwest corner of Sonoma County)
• Kabinapek (western part of Clear Lake basin)
• Kaimé (above Healdsburg)
• Kai Pomo (between Eel River and South Fork)
• Kastel Pomo (between Eel River and South Fork)
• Kato Pomo, "Lake People" (Clear Lake)
• Komácho (Anderson and Rancheria Valleys)
• Kulá Kai Pomo (Sherwood Valley)
• Kulanapo (Clear Lake)
• Láma (Russian River Valley)
• Misálamag[-u]n or Musakak[-u]n (above Healdsburg)
• Mitoám Kai Pomo, "Wooded Valley People" (Little Lake)
• Poam Pomo
• Senel (Russian River Valley)
• Shódo Kaí Pomo (Coyote Valley)
• Síako (Russian River Valley)
• Sokóa (Russian River Valley)
• Yokáya (or Ukiah) Pomo, "Lower Valley People" (Ukiah City)
• Yusâl (or Kámalel) Pomo, "Ocean People" (on coast and along Usal Creek)

Notable Pomo people

Here are some well-known people from the Pomo tribe:

• William Ralganal Benson (1862–1937)
• Mary Knight Benson (1877–1930)
• Elmer Busch (1890–1949)
• Laura Somersal (1892–1990), basket weaver
• Elsie Allen (1899–1990)
• Essie Pinola Parrish (1903–1979)
• Mabel McKay (1907–1993)
• Julia F. Parker (born 1928)
• Luwana Quitiquit (1941–2010), basket weaver who created a program to revive the craft
• Susan Billy (born 1951), basket weaver
• Chuck Billy (born 1962), singer of the metal band Testament
• Danielle Forward, software engineer and Indigenous activist
• Franklin Dollar, physicist