Indigenous peoples of California

Indigenous peoples of California, commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are a diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and after European colonization. There are currently 109 federally recognized tribes in the state and over forty self-identified tribes or tribal bands that have applied for federal recognition. California has the second-largest Native American population in the United States.

Most tribes practiced forest gardening or permaculture and controlled burning to ensure the availability of food and medicinal plants as well as ecosystem balance. Archeological sites indicate human occupation of California for thousands of years. European settlers began exploring their homelands in the late 18th century.

Native Californian peoples continue to advocate for their cultures, homelands, sacred sites, and their right to live. In the 21st century, language revitalization began among some California tribes. The Land Back movement has taken shape in the state with more support to return land to tribes. There is a growing recognition by California of Native peoples' environmental knowledge to improve ecosystems and mitigate wildfires.

Classification

Many tribal nations in California have lands that extend beyond the state's borders. Some tribes near the border with Nevada are known as Great Basin tribes, while those near the Oregon border are called Plateau tribes. Tribes in Baja California that do not cross into California are part of the Indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Kumeyaay nation lives on both sides of the Mexico-United States border.

History

Further information: History of the west coast of North America

Indigenous

Evidence shows people lived in California for at least 19,000 years ago. Places like Borax Lake, the Cross Creek Site, Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Barbara Coast's Sudden Flats, and the Scotts Valley site show signs of early settlements. The Arlington Springs Man is a 10,000-year-old skeleton found on the Channel Islands. Shellfish remains from forests show people lived in places like Daisy Cave and Cardwell Bluffs between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago.

Before Europeans arrived, there were about 500 different groups of Indigenous people in California, each with 50 to 500 members. California had more Native American people than any other area north of Mexico because of its good weather and food. Early people were hunters and gatherers, and later started collecting seeds. Different cultures developed over time, adapting to their surroundings.

Indigenous people took care of forests, grasslands, and wetlands to grow food and medicine. They used controlled fires to clear land and help plants grow, which also kept big wildfires away.

Contact with Europeans

Main article: Spanish colonization of the Americas

Different tribes met Europeans at different times. Tribes along the coast met explorers in the mid-1500s. Tribes in the southeast met Spanish explorers in the 1760s and 1770s. Tribes in the northwest met Russian explorers in the late 1700s. Some tribes in remote areas didn’t meet Europeans until the mid-1800s.

Late 18th century: Missions and decline

Further information: Mission Indians and Spanish missions in California

When the first Spanish Mission was built in 1769, California had around 340,000 Indigenous people. The Spanish built 20 missions, and many Indigenous people were taken there. From 1769 to 1832, there were many births and marriages but also many deaths at the missions. This happened because of diseases, hard work, and poor food.

The missions brought new plants and animals that changed the land and the way people lived. They also stopped many cultural practices and forced people to follow new religions.

19th century: decline

The number of Indigenous people in California dropped by 90% during the 1800s—from over 200,000 to about 15,000. This happened because of diseases, wars, and violence from settlers.

Russian contacts (1812–1841)

Main article: Russian colonization of North America § California

In the early 1800s, Russian explorers visited California. They met Indigenous people and noted their independence and creativity.

Mexican secularization (1833–1848)

Further information: Ranchos of California

In the 1830s, Mexico changed the rules for missions, ending religious control over Indigenous people. Land was given to settlers, and many Indigenous people had to work for them without getting much in return.

American settler control (1848–)

Following the Mexican–American War, American settlers took control of California. They treated Indigenous people very harshly, leading to many conflicts and a big drop in their population.

California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855)

Further information: California Gold Rush § Native Americans, and Forced labor in California

The Gold Rush brought many settlers to California, causing big problems for Indigenous people. Many lost their homes and food, and some were taken for forced labor. Laws allowed people to take Indigenous children for work, and some were sold in markets.

American unratified treaties (1851–1852)

Main article: California Indian Reservations and Cessions

In the 1850s, the U.S. tried to make treaties with Indigenous people, promising them land. But settlers didn’t like these treaties, and the U.S. government didn’t approve them, leaving Indigenous people without the land they were promised.

California decline (1846–1873)

Main article: California genocide

Violence against Indigenous people continued after the Gold Rush. In the northern areas, militias attacked Indigenous communities. The Modoc people fought back but suffered heavy losses.

20th century: Forced assimilation

By 1900, only about 16,000 Indigenous people remained. They faced policies that tried to erase their culture. Children were sent to schools where they had to act like white people, speak new languages, and give up their traditions.

Indian removal in California (1903)

Main article: Indian removal

In 1903, the last major forced move of Indigenous people in the U.S. happened in Southern California. The Cupeño people were forced to leave their homeland and move to Pala.

Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935)

See also: American Indian boarding schools

From the late 1800s to the 1930s, Indigenous children were sent to boarding schools. There, they were given new names, forced to wear new clothes, and not allowed to speak their languages. Many suffered from poor conditions and abuse.

Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946)

Since the 1920s, Indigenous groups asked for money back for the land promised in unratified treaties. In the 1940s, they received millions of dollars, but not the land.

Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–)

The Religious Freedom Act in 1978 gave Indigenous people some rights to practice their religions. But it didn’t always protect their sacred lands or sites.

21st century

California has the largest Indigenous population in the U.S., with over 1.2 million people identifying as Indigenous. Many are from other tribes, but some are from California tribes.

Recognition as decline (2019)

For over a century, many people didn’t recognize the serious harm done to Indigenous people in California. In 2019, the governor apologized and started a council to learn about this history.

Language revival

After many years of stopping Indigenous languages, some are coming back. Tribes like Chumash and Yurok are working to teach their languages again.

Prison system

Indigenous people, especially women, are put in prison more often than others. Some see this as continuing old patterns of control.

Burial sites, remains, and cultural items

Laws help protect some remains, but development still hurts many burial sites and sacred places.

Land Back movement

Some land has been returned to tribes. For example, Tuluwat Island was given back to the Wiyot tribe, and in 2024, more land was returned to the Shasta Indian Nation.

Material culture

Basket weaving

Further information: Pomo § Basket weaving tradition

Basket making was a key part of Native American life in California. Baskets were both beautiful and useful, made from twine and woven tightly enough to hold water for cooking. Tribes created baskets in many shapes and sizes for different uses, such as carrying babies, collecting food, cooking, and wearing as hats. Women usually made the baskets, and girls learned the skills from a young age, including how to gather and prepare the plants used for weaving.

Foods

See also: Native American cuisine

The Indigenous peoples of California had a rich variety of foods from plants, animals, and the ocean. Coastal groups often ate fish and shellfish, while those living inland relied more on nuts, seeds, hunting, and river resources. Because of this variety, if one food source was not available, there were many others to use. Some main foods included fish, shellfish, insects, deer, elk, and plants like buckeye and sage seed.

Plant-based foods

Acorns from the California Live Oak were a main food for many groups. They were ground into meal and then boiled or baked to make bread. Other plants used for food included berries from the Manzanita, which could be eaten fresh, cooked, or made into jelly. The California juniper provided both food and medicine, and its berries were eaten fresh or dried. California hazelnuts were also an important seasonal food for some groups. Food was not just for eating—it also had social and ceremonial importance, bringing families and communities together.

Marine life

Coastal groups hunted marine mammals like northern elephant seals and California sea lions for meat, blubber, and fur. They also fished along the shore for many types of fish.

Anadromous fish

Anadromous fish, such as Pacific salmon, were very important for groups living near rivers like the Klamath and Sacramento. Salmon ran in these rivers and streams, and for some groups like the Yurok and Karuk, salmon and acorns were main foods. Fish required special tools like dip nets and harpoons and were caught only during certain times of the year. The fish were then dried and stored for later use.

Land Management

Many Indigenous communities managed their land to help grow more food. They used controlled burns to keep grasslands open, support useful plants, and make hunting easier. These burns required careful planning and knowledge passed down through generations. This land management helped maintain healthy ecosystems and provided reliable food sources. However, colonization changed these practices, altering the environment and making some traditional foods harder to find.

Society and culture

Tribes in California had different roles for men and women. Women often took care of weaving, gathering food, and preparing meals, while men usually hunted and did other types of work. Some Native people dressed in ways that were different from others, and they had important roles in their communities.

Many tribes in Central California and Northern California followed the Kuksu religion. This included special dances and ceremonies with unique costumes. In Southern California, tribes such as the Luiseño and Diegueño practiced the Toloache religion. Their ceremonies involved drinking a special plant to connect with spiritual experiences.

California’s Native American cultures also created beautiful rock art, especially the Chumash people. These were colorful paintings on rocks that showed people, animals, and other designs, and they were very important to their beliefs.

Reservations

See also: List of federally recognized tribes by state § California

There are many places in California where Indigenous people live together in communities called reservations. Some of these reservations have more than 500 people living there.

List of peoples

Main articles: List of indigenous peoples in California and Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

There are many groups of Indigenous peoples who have lived in California for a very long time. These groups have different names and come from different areas of the state.

Some of these groups include the Achomawi, Atsugewi, Cahuilla, Chemehuevi, and Chumash. Each of these groups has their own traditions and languages. Others include the Esselen, Hupa, Karok, and Kato. Many of these groups still exist today and work to keep their cultures alive.

Languages

Further information: Indigenous languages of the Americas

Before Europeans arrived, the people of California spoke more than 300 different ways of talking, called dialects, from about 100 different languages. This many languages existed because California had many different environments and small groups of people lived separately, each with their own language.

Most of these languages were very special to just a few small groups. Some were part of bigger language families, while others stood alone. Some languages might have been in California even before others arrived from nearby areas.