Portuguese Empire

The Portuguese Empire was the first European colonial empire, lasting from 1415 until 1999. It was created during a time when European nations were exploring new sea routes. Portuguese sailors used new technologies to travel far across the oceans. They reached Africa, Asia, and even South America, setting up trading posts and colonies.

At its largest around 1820, the empire covered huge areas of the world, including parts of the Americas, Africa, and islands in Oceania. It was one of the biggest empires ever, stretching over 5.5 million square kilometres. The empire brought great wealth to Portugal through trade, especially in valuable goods like spices.

Over time, other European powers challenged Portugal’s control. By the 1800s, many of its colonies gained independence. The last pieces of the empire were returned to their home countries in the late 1900s, with Macau going back to China in 1999. Today, the culture and language from this empire live on in many places around the world.

Origins (1139–1415)

Main article: History of Portugal (1139–1415)

The Kingdom of Portugal began during a long struggle called the reconquista, where it took back land from the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula. By 1249, Portugal had taken all the land it wanted, but it still faced threats from its neighbor Castile until a peace treaty in 1411.

With peace at home, Portugal looked outward. In 1415, Portugal attacked Ceuta, a busy port in North Africa. This was both a victory and a challenge, as defending Ceuta took many resources. Though it did not open new trade routes as hoped, it was an important first step for Portugal to grow beyond its own borders.

First Empire (1415–1663)

Main articles: History of Portugal (1415–1578) and Portuguese discoveries

See also: European enclaves in North Africa before 1830

The Portuguese Empire began in 1415 when they captured the city of Ceuta. This marked the start of their exploration along the African coast. A key figure in this effort was Infante Dom Henry the Navigator, who helped promote and finance Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wanted to discover how far Muslim territories in Africa extended and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea. His goal was to access the valuable spice trade and possibly connect with the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John.

Under his support, Portuguese ships reached the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1419) and Azores (1427), which began producing wheat for Portugal. Soon, Portuguese ships brought valuable goods like gold, ivory, pepper, cotton, sugar, and slaves to Europe. They mapped unknown parts of Africa and began exploring the Indian Ocean. In 1487, an expedition by Pêro da Covilhã reached India, exploring trade opportunities and ending up in Ethiopia. His report became a key source of knowledge in Lisbon about global geography and trade routes.

Initial African coastline excursions

People were nervous about what lay beyond Cape Bojador, but in 1434, one of Henry’s captains, Gil Eanes, successfully rounded it. This breakthrough made further exploration easier. In 1443, Henry's brother, Infante Dom Pedro, granted Henry a monopoly on navigation, war, and trade south of Cape Bojador. New ships called caravels made travel closer to the wind possible, helping Portuguese explorers reach more southern latitudes. They reached Senegal and the Cape Verde Peninsula in 1445.

The first overseas trade post was set up in 1445 on the island of Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders. In 1446, Álvaro Fernandes explored as far as present-day Sierra Leone, and the Gulf of Guinea was reached in the 1460s. The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled in 1462.

Expansion of sugarcane in Madeira began in 1455, using advice from Sicily and money from Genoese traders. By the 1490s, Madeira had surpassed Cyprus as a sugar producer. In 1469, King Afonso V granted a trade monopoly in part of the Gulf of Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes. Gomes discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including São Tomé and Príncipe, and established a trading post at Elmina. During the War of the Castilian Succession, a large Castilian fleet tried to take control but was defeated in the 1478 Battle of Guinea. In 1481, João II built São Jorge da Mina to protect this trade. The equator was crossed in 1473, and the Congo River was reached by Diogo Cão in 1482. During this expedition, the Portuguese first met the Kingdom of Kongo. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa, proving the Indian Ocean was not land-locked.

As the Portuguese explored Africa’s coast, they left stone crosses called padrões to mark their claims and built forts and trading posts. They engaged in trades like slaves and gold, with Portugal holding a monopoly on the African slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually to Lisbon.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Main article: Treaty of Tordesillas

Christopher Columbus’s 1492 discovery of the New World for Spain led to disputes between Spain and Portugal. These were settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside Europe between the two countries along a north–south line west of the Cape Verde islands. However, the exact boundary was disputed until 1777 because longitude couldn’t be measured accurately at the time.

The Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean

Main articles: Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India, Portuguese India, Portuguese India Armadas, Indian Ocean trade § Portuguese period, and Portuguese presence in Asia

The fleet of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape, and reached Calicut (Kozhikode) in southwestern India in May 1498. The second voyage to India was led in 1500 by Pedro Álvares Cabral, who accidentally landed on the Brazilian coast. Cabral suggested settling the land, and follow-up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was rich in pau-brasil, or brazilwood, but lacked gold or silver, so Portuguese efforts focused on India. In 1502, the Portuguese created the cartaz licensing system to protect merchant ships in the Indian Ocean.

The Portuguese were well-received in India as allies of the ruler of Kochi and built their first European settlement there. They established trading hubs and built forts. In 1505, King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Francisco de Almeida as the first Viceroy of Portuguese India. That year, they also conquered Kannur and began exploring Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka).

A Portuguese fleet under Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Socotra in 1506 and Muscat in 1507. After failing to conquer Ormuz, they focused on blocking trade routes. Madagascar was partly explored, and Mauritius was discovered.

Trade with Maritime Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean

Goa, Malacca and Southeast Asia

See also: Adil Shahi–Portuguese conflicts, Malay-Portuguese conflicts, and Acehnese-Portuguese conflicts

By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the East Indies with the capital at Velha Goa. His first goal was to conquer Goa for its strategic location. With help from a local ally, Timoji, Goa was recaptured in 1510. Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in India that year and encouraged settlers to marry local women. He built a church and tried to get along with Hindus by protecting their temples and lowering their taxes.

In April 1511, Albuquerque sailed to Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, capturing it by July. He sent explorers to the Indonesian archipelago. Malacca became a base for Portuguese trade with China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate called the A Famosa was built to defend the city. Albuquerque also sent a diplomat to the Kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), establishing friendly relations and trade.

The Portuguese discovered Timor in 1512 and New Guinea in 1526. In 1517, they reached Chittagong, and by 1528 had a settlement there. They based their operations along the Hugli River, meeting Muslims, Hindus, and deserters known as Chatins.

China and Japan

See also: Chinese people in Portugal, Nanban trade, Slavery in Portugal, and Portuguese Nagasaki

The first European to reach China by sea was Jorge Álvares, who also discovered Hong Kong. In 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque sent Rafael Perestrello to China to start trade. Early attempts to force trading posts failed against the Ming Chinese. The Portuguese later settled peacefully in Macau in 1557 after paying rent to China.

Despite early harmony, problems arose, including raids by the Portuguese explorer Simão de Andrade. Tensions grew, and the Chinese attacked Portuguese settlements. Eventually, trade resumed cautiously, and Macau became a major trading port between China, Japan, Goa, and Europe.

Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza

Portuguese activities in Asia drew Spanish attention. In 1521, Magellan arrived and claimed the Philippines for Spain. Spain sent an expedition to the Moluccas islands in 1525, leading to conflict with the Portuguese. The Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529 resolved this, giving the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain. The Portuguese traded with the Bruneian Empire from 1530 onward.

South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea

See also: Persian–Portuguese war, Capture of Ormuz (1507), Portuguese invasion of Bahrain, History of Kuwait, History of Bahrain, Qeshm Island, Bandar Abbas, Portuguese Oman, Portuguese Socotra, Portuguese Ceylon, and Gujarati-Portuguese conflicts

The Portuguese expanded into the Persian Gulf, competing with the Ajuran Empire and the Ottoman Empire. They conquered Hormuz in 1515 and later Bahrain in 1521. They dominated parts of the southern Persian Gulf for about a century. The island of Mozambique became a strategic port with a fort and hospital.

In 1534, Gujarat faced attacks from the Mughals and Rajput states. The Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat allied with the Portuguese, giving them control of Daman, Diu, Mumbai, and Bassein. This alliance helped Gujarat regain control, though the Ottomans later challenged Portuguese positions in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.

Sub-Saharan Africa

After contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese allied with the Ethiopian Kingdom against threats. They also contacted the Ndongo kingdom in 1520. Later, conflicts arose over slave trading, especially with the Kingdom of Kongo. In the 1560s, the Portuguese helped Kongo against attackers, leading to the establishment of Luanda as a slave port in 1576. Tensions continued between Portugal, Kongo, and Ndongo for decades.

Missionary expeditions

In 1542, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Goa. Traders also reached Japan in the same year, impressing locals with firearms. By 1570, the Portuguese had part of the Japanese port of Nagasaki, which became a major trading hub. Jesuit missionaries followed the Portuguese to spread Catholicism in Asia and Africa with varied success.

Colonisation efforts in the Americas

Main article: Portuguese colonisation of the Americas

Canada

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal claimed parts of North America reached by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498. Explorers like João Fernandes Lavrador reached Greenland and Canada’s north Atlantic coast in 1499–1500. The brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real explored areas of present-day Newfoundland and Labrador and Greenland between 1500–1502. King Manuel I taxed cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters in 1506. Attempts to settle in Newfoundland failed due to native resistance and competition from other European fisheries.

Brazil

After Cabral’s arrival in Brazil in 1500, French explorers began raiding the coast for brazilwood. By 1531, the French had a trading post on a Brazilian island. To counter this, João III sent Martim Afonso de Sousa in 1531 to patrol the coast and establish towns like São Vicente in 1532. João III divided Brazil into fifteen hereditary captaincies in 1532, but only Pernambuco and São Vicente prospered, focusing on sugar cane production.

In 1548, João III created the first General Government, sending Tomé de Sousa as governor and choosing Salvador as the capital in 1549. Sousa’s expedition included soldiers, workers, and six Jesuits led by Manuel da Nóbrega. The Jesuits played a key role in early settlements like São Vicente and São Paulo. Disease also affected native populations. The French later established a settlement at Guanabara Bay, called France Antarctique. Portuguese forces, led by Mem de Sá, expelled the French by 1560. Sá and his nephew Estácio de Sá then founded Rio de Janeiro in 1567. By 1575, native resistance had largely ended.

Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis (1580–1663)

Main articles: Iberian Union, Council of Portugal, Dutch-Portuguese War, and Portuguese Restoration War

See also: War of the Portuguese Succession

In 1580, King Philip II of Spain invaded Portugal after a succession crisis following the death of King Sebastião of Portugal in the Portuguese attack on Alcácer Quibir in Morocco in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two empires under Spanish Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union. Philip promised to keep the empires separate, with a Viceroy of Portugal in Lisbon managing Portuguese interests. The capital was moved to Lisbon for two years (1581–83). All Portuguese colonies accepted the union except the Azores, which supported a rival claimant, António, backed by France. Spanish forces captured the Azores in 1583.

The Portuguese expanded westward in Brazil beyond the Tordesillas line, exploring with government-ordered “entradas” and private “bandeiras.” These expeditions aimed to capture natives for labor and later searched for valuable resources like gold and diamonds.

The union brought Portugal into Spain’s conflicts with England, France, and the Dutch Republic, which were building their own empires. The Dutch, fighting for independence from Spain since 1568, were a major threat. In 1581, the Seven Provinces declared independence from Habsburg rule. Philip II banned trade with Dutch ships, including in Brazil.

Spanish trade networks opened new opportunities for Portuguese merchants, especially slave traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at higher prices. Portugal also gained access to silver from Peru and Mexico and incorporated Manila into the Macau-Nagasaki trading network, allowing Macanese traders to connect Philippine Spaniards with Chinese trade using American silver.

In 1592, an English fleet captured a large Portuguese ship near the Azores, carrying valuable goods from India and China. This highlighted the wealth of the East and increased interest from Europe. That year, Dutch merchants sent Cornelis de Houtman to Lisbon to gather information about the Spice Islands.

The Dutch recognized Goa’s importance and, in 1583, Jan Huyghen van Linschoten published secret Portuguese trade routes after serving as secretary to the Archbishop of Goa. This information helped the Dutch and English expand their commercial efforts, leading to the founding of the English East India Company in 1600 and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. These companies marked the beginning of chartered companies entering the East Indies.

The Dutch attacked Spanish and Portuguese colonies, starting the Dutch–Portuguese War (1602–1663). With help from local allies, they captured Malacca in 1641, Portuguese Gold Coast in 1642, Ceylon in 1658, and Kochi in 1663. The Dutch also controlled parts of northeast Brazil and Luanda, though the Portuguese later regained these areas.

In the Persian Gulf, the Portuguese lost Bahrain in 1602, Ormuz to a joint Safavid-English force in 1622, and Muscat to Oman in 1650. The 1625 Battle off Hormuz ended in a draw. They continued using Muscat as a base and captured Fort Jesus in 1698, losing Zanzibar that year. Missionaries were expelled from Ethiopia and Japan in the 1630s.

Second Empire (1663–1822)

Further information: History of Portugal (1640–1777) and History of Portugal (1777–1834)

The loss of colonies helped end the union with Spain. In 1640, João IV became king of Portugal, and the Portuguese Restoration War began. Before the war ended, the government created the Overseas Council in 1643 to manage most of Portugal's faraway lands. This group handled all matters about these places.

In 1661, Portugal gave Bombay and Tangier to England as part of a marriage agreement. Over time, English traders became more powerful in India. Spain recognized Portugal as separate from Spain in 1668.

Portugal lost many of its places in India to local rulers and other countries, keeping only Goa and a few small areas. In Brazil and Africa, Portugal kept some lands but lost its main role in Asian trade.

Gold was discovered in Brazil in 1693, leading to a rush of people to the area. This brought wealth to Portugal, which took a share of the gold. Many people, including enslaved Africans, worked in the mines. Some freed slaves found work as craftsmen.

A big earthquake hit Lisbon in 1755, causing many deaths and slowing Portugal's plans for growth.

The government of Portugal tried to control its lands more tightly. They made changes to help the economy, like growing more crops and trading goods. Some people in Brazil wanted to be independent, like the United States, but these plans failed.

In 1808, when France invaded Portugal, the royal family moved to Brazil. In 1815, Brazil became a kingdom, and Rio de Janeiro became the capital of the Portuguese state. After the king returned to Portugal in 1821, many Brazilians wanted their own country. In 1822, Dom Pedro I declared Brazil's independence, becoming its first emperor. This happened without many fights.

Third empire (1822–1999)

Main articles: Portuguese Mozambique, Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Guinea, and Portuguese Timor

Further information: Liberal Wars, History of Portugal (1834–1910), and Campaigns of Pacification and Occupation

During the 1800s, Portugal lost much of its land in South America and kept only a few places in Asia. Instead, Portugal focused on growing its areas in Africa, turning small outposts into large lands. Explorers helped map routes across Africa, going from west to east.

Portugal officially ended slavery in 1878, but many unfair practices continued. Differences between people were still enforced by law.

Portugal tried to connect its African lands with a plan called the Pink Map, but this upset Britain, which wanted its own land stretching from Cairo to Cape Town. In 1890, Britain forced Portugal to stop this plan.

In 1908, Portugal's king and his son were killed in Lisbon. Two years later, Portugal became a republic and the king went into exile.

Main articles: German campaign in Angola, East African Campaign (World War I), Portugal during World War I, and Battle of the Lys (1918)

When World War I began, Germany tried to take Angola from Portugal. Portugal joined the war on the side of the Allies after Germany attacked Portuguese ships. Portugal helped supply the Allies and sent soldiers to fight in France and Africa. Though Germany attacked Portuguese ships and lands, the war ended with an armistice, and Portugal kept most of its territories.

Portuguese territories in Africa later became the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.

Decolonisation and decline (1954–1999)

Main articles: Portuguese Colonial War, Carnation Revolution, Transfer of sovereignty over Macau, and Annexation of Goa

After World War II, many countries began to gain their independence from European powers. This created challenges for Portugal, which wanted to keep its colonies. In 1954, local uprisings started in places like Dadra and Nagar Haveli in India. In 1961, India took control of Goa, Daman, and Diu, but Portugal did not accept this.

Fighting also began in Africa around 1961, especially in Angola, Guinea, and Mozambique, as people there wanted independence too. These wars were long and costly. In 1974, a group of military officers called the Carnation Revolution took power in Portugal. They ended the wars and began to let go of their colonies in Africa. Many Portuguese people who lived in these places had to leave quickly.

In 1999, Portugal also handed over Macau to China, marking the end of its empire. This followed an agreement made in 1987, and Macau would keep its own way of life for many years to come.

Legacy

Today, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) continues the cultural and political work of the old Portuguese Empire. Macau was returned to China on December 20, 1999, but Portuguese remains an official language there along with Cantonese Chinese.

The Azores and Madeira are still territories of Portugal. Eight former Portuguese colonies still use Portuguese as their main language, and they all belong to the CPLP, which covers about 7.2% of the world's land.

Portuguese is now one of the world's most important languages, spoken by around 240 million people. It is especially strong in Brazil, but also in places like Canada, the US, and Venezuela. Many words for the sweet orange in different languages come from Portuguese, showing how much the world has taken from this language.

Portugal and Brazil are working to make Portuguese an official language at the United Nations.