Oceania

Oceania is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It is also described as a continent, with mainland Australia regarded as its continental landmass. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, Oceania has a land area of about 9,000,000 square kilometres and a population of around 46.3 million people.

Oceania is the smallest and second-least populated continent after Antarctica. It is home to Earth’s third-largest remaining area of tropical rainforest, which covers much of the island of New Guinea. The region has a diverse mix of economies, from highly developed financial markets in Australia, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and New Zealand, to less developed economies in Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Western New Guinea.

The first settlers of Australia and nearby islands arrived more than 60,000 years ago. Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Famous explorers like James Cook traveled to Tahiti and along the east coast of Australia. The arrival of European settlers changed the social and political landscape of Oceania. The rock art of Aboriginal Australians is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world, and most Oceanian countries are parliamentary democracies, with tourism being an important source of income for many Pacific island nations.

Definition

Characteristics

Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition encompasses the islands between mainland Asia and the Americas. The island nation of Australia is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent. The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and pre-Columbian America. Before Europeans arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands. The islands of the Malay Archipelago, north of Australia, mainly lie on the continental shelf of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity.

The term Oceania is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together. In the 19th century, many geographers divided Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions: Australasia, Malesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Oceania has traditionally been considered a continent in anthropological studies, similar to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Boundaries

Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the Bonin Islands, a politically integral part of Japan; Hawaii, a state of the United States; Clipperton Island, a possession of France; Rapa Nui (Easter Island), belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia.

United Nations interpretation

The United Nations (UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century: Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island, and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island, which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the International Olympic Committee, and by many atlases. The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Their definition includes American Samoa, Australia and their external territories, the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Fiji, Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, and the United States Minor Outlying Islands.

History

Main articles: History of Oceania and History of the Pacific Islands

Colonisation of Oceania

Australia

Main articles: Prehistory of Australia and History of Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians are the original people of Australia and nearby islands. They moved from Africa to Asia about 70,000 years ago and reached Australia around 50,000 years ago. They are among the earliest humans to leave Africa. They reached Tasmania about 40,000 years ago by crossing a land bridge during the last ice age.

Melanesia

Main article: History of New Guinea

The original people of Melanesia were likely the ancestors of today’s Papuan-speaking groups. They moved from Southeast Asia and settled these islands as far east as the Solomon Islands archipelago.

Micronesia

See also: History of the Federated States of Micronesia

Micronesia was settled thousands of years ago, but there are different ideas about when and how people first arrived. The earliest signs of life have been found on the island of Saipan, dating back to 1500 BCE or earlier. The people of Yap and Pohnpei created a centralized culture. The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands were the Chamorros, who arrived between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE from Southeast Asia.

Polynesia

Main articles: History of Hawaii and History of New Zealand

Further information: Polynesian navigation

The Polynesian people are part of the sea-migrating Austronesian people. They originated in the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan. Between 3000 and 1000 BCE, these people spread from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia.

European exploration

See also: Magellan expedition, Spanish East Indies, History of Australia (1788–1850), and Colony of New Zealand

Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese sailors reached the Maluku Islands, Timor, and parts of Papua New Guinea in the early 1500s. In 1519, a Spanish trip led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed through the strait that now bears his name and entered the Pacific Ocean.

European settlement and colonisation

See also: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand

In 1788, Britain set up colonies in Australia, and later in New Zealand and Fiji. France declared Tahiti a protectorate in 1842. Germany set up colonies in New Guinea and Samoa in the late 1800s. The United States also grew its presence in the Pacific, with Hawaiʻi becoming a US territory in 1898.

Modern history

Main articles: Pacific War, Military history of Oceania, Military history of New Zealand, Military history of Australia during World War I, Military history of Australia during World War II, History of Guam, History of Australia (1901–1945), and Decolonisation of Oceania

In World War II, battles took place across Oceania. Australia and New Zealand became independent countries in the 20th century. Hawaii became a U.S. state in 1959. Fiji and Tonga became independent in 1970. The Pacific Islands Forum was founded in 1971.

Geography

See also: List of Oceanian countries by population and List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania

Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the Aleutian Islands and other Alaskan or Canadian islands. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the Northern Hemisphere, and 55 degrees south to Macquarie Island in the Southern Hemisphere.

Oceanian islands are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs, and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaiʻi, and Solomon Islands.

Oceania is one of eight terrestrial biogeographic realms, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania, which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the Southern Ocean and Indian Ocean, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean. The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.

Regions

Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the centre, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Santa Cruz Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and New Caledonia.

Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga, and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the centre, and the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.

Australasia comprises Australia, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India, most of Australasia lies on the Indo-Australian Plate with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south.

Geology

Main articles: Geography of Fiji, Geology of New Zealand, Geology of Australia, and Geography of Samoa

The Pacific Plate, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At 103 million square kilometres (40,000,000 sq mi), it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior hot spot forming the Hawaiian Islands. It is almost entirely oceanic crust. The oldest member disappearing by way of the plate tectonics cycle is early-Cretaceous (145 to 137 million years ago).

Australia became part of the Indo-Australian Plate 45 to 40 million years ago, and this is in the process of separating again, with the Australian Plate being relevant to Oceania. It is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, has occasional middle-sized earthquakes, and currently has no active volcanism (but some volcanoes in southeast Australia erupted within the last 10,000 years).

The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes, and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica.

The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia, then locked together with Australia to form the Australian Plate (40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.

Most islands in the Pacific are high islands (volcanic islands), such as Easter Island, American Samoa, and Fiji, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were formed c. 7 to 30 million years ago, as shield volcanoes over the same volcanic hotspot that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above mean sea level.

Flora

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Environment of New Zealand, Flora of Australia, Flora of New Zealand, Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands, and Domesticated plants of Austronesia

The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west, and east, and a desert in the centre. Desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.

Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire, which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus – gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia – wattle). The flora of Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia is tropical dry forest, with tropical vegetation that includes palm trees, Premna protrusa, Psydrax odorata, Gyrocarpus americanus, and Derris trifoliata.

New Zealand's landscape ranges from the fjord-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. The South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various microclimates in New Zealand.

In Hawaii, one endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia – B. rockii and B. insignis – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down 910-metre (3,000 ft) cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.

The area of primary forest decreased in Oceania by 17,000 hectares per year in 1990–2000, 25,600 ha per year in 2000–2015 and 20,200 ha per year in 2015–2025.

Fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Australia, Birds of Australia, Birds of New Zealand, Fauna of New Zealand, Mammals of Australia, List of birds of Australia, List of birds of New Zealand, and Domesticated animals of Austronesia

The aptly named Pacific kingfisher is found in the Pacific Islands, as is the Red-vented bulbul, Polynesian starling, Brown goshawk, Pacific Swallow and the Cardinal myzomela, among others. Birds breeding on Pitcairn include the fairy tern, common noddy, and red-tailed tropicbird. The Pitcairn reed warbler, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the endangered species list in 2008.

Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been extinct in the wild since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam, and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise, honeyeaters, Australasian treecreeper, Australasian robin, kingfishers, butcherbirds, and bowerbirds.

A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the marsupials – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums, and dasyuromorphs. The passerines of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include wrens, the magpie group, thornbills, corvids, pardalotes, lyrebirds. Predominant bird species in the country include the Australian magpie, Australian raven, the pied currawong, crested pigeons and the laughing kookaburra. The koala, emu, platypus and kangaroo are national animals of Australia, and the Tasmanian devil is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a predatory lizard native to the Australian mainland.

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of endemic species. As an island archipelago, New Zealand accumulated bird diversity, and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s, he noted that the bird song was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology, such as the kākāpō, which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighbouring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the kiwi, kea, takahē, kākāpō, mohua, tūī, and the bellbird. The tuatara is a notable reptile endemic to New Zealand.

Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Wallacea, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean collectively possess 42% of the world's parrot species, including half of all Critically Endangered parrots, many of which are endemic to the region.

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Australia, Climate of New Zealand, and Climate of Hawaii

The Pacific Islands are ruled by a tropical rainforest and tropical savanna climate. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.

To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a temperate climate, such as oceanic and humid subtropical climate in the east coast and Mediterranean climate in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory.

Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and subtropical in Northland. Snow falls in New Zealand's South Island and at higher altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.

Hawaii, although being in the tropics, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii, for example, hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as 10,430 km² (4,028 sq mi) according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate, and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as Guam, are susceptible to typhoons in the wet season.

The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached 50.7 °C (123.3 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was −25.6 °C (−14.1 °F), at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir. Pohnpei of the Senyavin Islands in Micronesia is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 mm (300 in) each year in certain mountainous locations. The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average 10,271 mm (404.4 in) each year.

Politics

Australia

Main article: Politics of Australia

Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III as the King of Australia. The King is represented by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level. Australia has two major political groups: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which includes the Liberal Party and the National Party. The Australian Defence Force is the largest military force in Oceania.

New Zealand

Main article: Politics of New Zealand

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy. Charles III is the King of New Zealand and the head of state, represented by the Governor-General. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and includes the King and the House of Representatives. New Zealand is known for its stable government and low levels of corruption.

Pacific Islands

In Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. Politics of Tonga follows a constitutional monarchy with the King of Tonga as the Head of State.

Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The executive power is exercised by the government, and legislative power is held by both the government and the Parliament of Fiji. Fiji's Head of State is the President.

In the politics of Papua New Guinea, the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General. In Kiribati, the President of Kiribati serves as both head of state and government.

New Caledonia is part of the French Republic, and its inhabitants are French citizens. New Caledonia sends representatives to the French National Assembly and senators to the French Senate.

Hawaii is led by the Democratic Party. Its government has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial, as stated in the Hawaiian Constitution. The governor is elected statewide.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Oceania

Oceania includes many different economies. Australia and New Zealand are highly developed, with strong and large economies. Australia's economy is the biggest in the region and is one of the largest in the world. New Zealand, though smaller, is also very developed and depends a lot on trade with other countries.

People in Australia mostly work in healthcare, retail, and education. The country makes many things like cars, electrical equipment, and clothes. New Zealand’s economy is also strong for its size, and it relies heavily on trade, especially with Australia, China, and the United States. Many people in New Zealand work in tourism, which is a big part of the economy.

In the Pacific Islands, most people work in services like tourism and education. These islands export things like coconut, timber, beef, and fish. Fiji, for example, is one of the more developed Pacific island economies, with tourism and sugar playing big roles. Hawaii’s economy has changed over time, with tourism now being very important. Many tourists visit places like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and Milford Sound in New Zealand.

Tourism

Further information: Tourism in Australia and Tourism in New Zealand

Tourism is very important for many places in Oceania. Australia gets many tourists to see places like the Sydney Opera House and the Great Barrier Reef. New Zealand attracts visitors to Milford Sound and other beautiful spots. Fiji welcomes almost half a million tourists each year, many from Australia. Vanuatu is known for its scuba diving and has been a location for TV shows.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Oceania

The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are grouped according to the United Nations' geographic subregions. These areas can be classified in different ways depending on the source and purpose.

Largest city for regions

• Australasia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Sydney)
• Melanesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Jayapura)
• Micronesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Dededo)
• Polynesia (metro, urban or proper largest city: Auckland)

Cities by metropolitan area

Religion

Main article: Religion in Oceania

Most people in Oceania follow Christianity. In Melanesia, about 92% of people are Christians, while in Micronesia it's around 93%, and in Polynesia it's about 96%. Some areas also follow traditional beliefs, like spirits called masalai in Tok Pisin. In New Zealand, around 37% of people identified as Christian in 2018, while nearly half said they had no specific religion. In Australia, about 52% identified with Christianity in 2016, and 30% said they had no religion.

In recent years, many people in Australia and New Zealand say they have "no religion". In Tonga, daily life is strongly shaped by Polynesian traditions and Christian beliefs. The Baháʼí House of Worship in Samoa is one of seven such buildings managed by the Baháʼí Faith.

Hinduism is practiced by some, especially in Fiji, where it makes up nearly 30% of the population. Australia also has many Hindus, making up about 3% of the country. Other religions found in the region include Islam and Buddhism, mainly in Australia and New Zealand.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Oceania

The native languages of Oceania belong to three main groups:

• The large Austronesian language family, including languages like Fijian, Māori, and Hawaiʻian
• The Aboriginal Australian languages, such as the Pama–Nyungan family
• The Papuan languages of New Guinea and nearby islands, including the Trans–New Guinea family

People from other places brought their own languages, too. Common ones include English in Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii; French in New Caledonia and French Polynesia; and Japanese in the Bonin Islands. There are also mixes of languages, known as Creoles, like Tok Pisin and Hawaiian Pidgin.

Immigration

Main articles: Post-war immigration to Australia, Immigration to Australia, Immigration to New Zealand, Refugees in Australia, Refugees in New Zealand, and Kanaka (Pacific Island worker)

Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii are among the most multicultural places in Oceania, with many people from different backgrounds moving there. Since 1945, over 7 million people have moved to Australia. Since the late 1970s, many have come from Asia and other non-European countries, making Australia very diverse.

Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, with over 250 languages spoken. About 40% of people there speak a language other than English at home. Melbourne is also very multicultural, with large groups of people from Greece and many parts of Asia.

New Zealand's main waves of immigration began after the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, mostly from the British Isles, but also from Europe, the Pacific, the Americas, and Asia. Auckland has more than half of New Zealand's people born outside the country.

Hawaii has many people of Asian ancestry, such as Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese. Many came to work on sugarcane farms in the 19th century. Portuguese immigrants also came to work on these farms.

Archaeogenetics

Studies of history, language, and genes show that Oceania was settled in two big waves of people moving there. The first group, known as Australo-Melanesians, arrived around 40 to 80 thousand years ago. About 3,500 years ago, a second group of people speaking Austronesian languages arrived and spread across the Pacific.

Much of New Guinea remains unexplored due to dense forests and steep mountains. Some tribes there have had very little contact with the outside world. The Indonesian regions of Papua and West Papua are home to many tribes that have not been studied much.

Culture

Australia

Main articles: Culture of Australia and Cuisine of Australia

Since 1788, Australian culture has been mainly influenced by Anglo-Celtic and Western culture, with some Indigenous influences. Over time, it has developed its own unique style. Since the mid-20th century, American popular culture has also had a big impact, especially through TV and movies. Other influences come from nearby Asian countries and immigrants from many places. The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906) was the world’s first feature length film, starting a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and largest museums in Oceania. Sydney’s New Year's Eve celebrations are the biggest in Oceania.

Australia is famous for its cafe and coffee culture in cities. Australia and New Zealand created the flat white coffee. Indigenous Australians traditionally ate local animals and plants, called bush tucker. The first settlers brought British food, like the Sunday roast, which is now a typical Australian meal. Later immigrants from many countries changed Australian food, bringing in new dishes and styles.

Hawaii

Main articles: Culture of Hawaii, Cuisine of Hawaii, and Hawaiian religion

Hawaii’s music includes traditional and modern styles, from native Hawaiian folk music to rock and hip hop. Hawaii’s music has had a big influence on the music of the United States, even though the state is small. Styles like slack-key guitar are famous worldwide, and Hawaiian music often appears in Hollywood movies. Hawaii also helped develop country music with the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion believes in many gods and spirits, including spirits in animals, waves, and the sky.

The cuisine of Hawaii mixes foods brought by many immigrants, including Polynesians, native Hawaiians, and people from Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian, and Portuguese backgrounds.

New Zealand

Main articles: Culture of New Zealand and Cuisine of New Zealand

New Zealand’s culture is Western, influenced by the indigenous Māori people and many immigrants. The Māori are one of the major cultures of Polynesia. New Zealand remembers important days like Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and celebrates holidays such as the King's Birthday and Christmas. New Zealand’s music industry grew from 1940, with many artists finding success in Britain and the United States. Some songs are in the Māori language, and traditional Māori dance and song called kapa haka is popular again. New Zealand’s scenery has attracted big movies like Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, and The Hobbit.

New Zealand’s food includes native Māori dishes and foods from settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia. Local foods include lamb, salmon, koura (crayfish), whitebait, shellfish, kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo, and pavlova, which is considered a national dish.

Samoa

Main articles: Culture of Samoa and Polynesian culture

The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, is still very important in Samoa. Despite outside influences, Samoa keeps its old customs, social systems, and language. Important events include the Samoa 'ava ceremony, a solemn ritual. Valuable cultural items include the finely woven 'ie toga. Samoan dance, called siva, tells stories through gentle movements. Male dances can be more lively. The sasa is a group dance with fast, synchronised moves to drum or mat rhythms. Another male dance, the fa'ataupati, makes rhythmic sounds by slapping the body.

Arts

Art in Oceania varies greatly across cultures and regions, often featuring themes of fertility or the supernatural. Common art forms include petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work. Indigenous Australian rock art is the oldest continuous art tradition in the world, dating back about 60,000 years. These paintings had many uses, from magic to hunting, to simple fun. Sculpture in Oceania first appeared in New Guinea as stone figures. By about 1500 BCE, the Lapita culture began spreading to remote islands. Around the same time, art appeared in New Guinea, including early sculptures. By about 1500 BCE, people on Easter Island started building nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). Around 1200 CE, people on Pohnpei began building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth, and tattoos. Native Hawaiians did not have metal or woven cloth.

Sport

See also: Sport in Oceania

Rugby union is a major sport in the region and the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga. In Australia, the most popular sport is cricket, with their national team winning the Cricket World Cup five times. Among Australian women, netball is most popular, while Australian rules football draws the largest crowds and TV viewers. Rugby union is the top sport in New Zealand, and they have won the Rugby World Cup three times. Australia’s the Wallabies have won the World Cup twice. In Papua New Guinea, Rugby league is the most popular sport. Fiji's sevens team and New Zealand's are among the best in the world.

Australian rules football is the national sport in Nauru. It is also popular in Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. The top league is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was one of the most attended leagues in the world in the 2010s.

Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania where association football is the national sport. It is also popular in Kiribati, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, and is growing in popularity in Australia. In 2006, Australia moved from the Oceania Football Confederation to the Asian Football Confederation, and their men’s team the Socceroos has qualified for every FIFA World Cup since then as an Asian team. Kiribati is the only Micronesian country in the OFC but is not recognised by FIFA. Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Palau do not participate due to lack of facilities and distance. Australia has hosted two Summer Olympics: Melbourne 1956 and Sydney 2000, and Brisbane will host the 2032 edition. Australia has hosted five Commonwealth Games, and New Zealand three. The Pacific Games is a multi-sport event for Pacific countries, similar to the Olympics but smaller. Australia and New Zealand joined in 2015.

Melbourne holds the Australian Open each year, one of tennis’s four Grand Slam tournaments.