United States Senate

The United States Senate is one part of the bicameral United States Congress. It is called the upper house, while the U.S. House of Representatives is the lower house. Together, they make and pass federal laws.

The Senate has special powers. It can approve or reject agreements between countries, confirm important appointments made by the president, and decide the results of special trials. There are 100 senators, two from each of the 50 states, and they serve staggered six-year terms.

Senators used to be chosen by state leaders, but since 1913, they are elected directly by the people in each state. The Senate works to balance the powers of the president and the courts, helping to make sure the government operates fairly. The Senate meets in a special room in the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C..

History

Main article: History of the United States Senate

When the writers of the Constitution were planning the Senate, they had many debates about how each state should be represented. Smaller states were worried they would lose their power, and they threatened to leave unless they got equal representation. This led to the Connecticut Compromise, where each state, no matter its size, would have two senators.

The United States Senate first met in 1789, inspired by the ancient Roman Senate. The word "senate" comes from Latin, meaning a council of elders. Today, there are 50 states, so the Senate has 100 senators.

Before 1913, senators were chosen by state legislatures. But this system caused problems, like empty seats and political fights, so it was changed to let people vote directly for their senators. The Senate has always had strong rules for how its members behave.

Functions

The Senate must approve all federal laws. It also has special jobs that help balance the government's power. For example, the Senate must agree to some of the president's choices for important jobs, like judges and leaders of government groups. It also must agree to treaties, which are agreements with other countries.

The Senate can also decide the outcome when someone in government is accused of serious wrongdoings. Both the Senate and the House of Representatives must agree on a bill for it to become a law. This includes laws about money. While the House starts money bills, the Senate can change them in big ways.

Main article: Act of Congress

The Senate can approve or disapprove of important appointments made by the president. This includes leaders of government groups, ambassadors, and Supreme Court justices. Usually, the Senate holds a meeting to discuss each choice before voting on it. Most choices are approved, but sometimes the Senate does not act, which stops the appointment.

The Senate also helps make official agreements, called treaties, between the president and other countries. These need a two-thirds vote in the Senate to be approved.

The Senate can also choose the vice president if no candidate gets enough votes from the Electoral College. This has only happened once, in 1837.

Membership

See also: List of current United States senators

Qualifications

Article I, Section 3, of the Constitution sets three rules for senators: they must be at least 30 years old, they must have been a U.S. citizen for at least nine years, and they must live in the state they want to represent when they are elected. These rules are stricter than those for representatives. In early years, the Senate did not always check these rules closely. Some senators were allowed in even though they were not yet 30.

Elections and term

Originally, state legislatures chose senators, not voters. By 1913, a change called the Seventeenth Amendment made it so voters in each state choose their senators.

Elections

Elections for the Senate happen on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, the same day as House elections. Senators are chosen by all the voters in their state. Each state decides how its senators are elected.

Vacancies

When a senator leaves office early, a special election is held to choose a replacement. Sometimes the governor can temporarily appoint someone until the election happens.

Term

Senators serve for six years. The terms are arranged so that about one-third of the seats are up for election every two years. There is no limit to how many terms a senator can serve.

Oath

Senators must promise to support the Constitution before they can start their job.

Salary and benefits

Since 2009, each senator earns $174,000 each year. Senators also get retirement and health benefits like other federal workers.

Seniority

Senators who have been in office longer often get better office space and important committee jobs. The senator who has served longer in a state is called the senior senator, and the other is the junior senator.

Titles

Senators are often called "The Honorable" before their names. They are usually known by their political party and state, like "D–New York" for a Democratic senator from New York.

Expulsion and other disciplinary actions

The Senate can remove a senator with a two-thirds vote. This has happened only a few times, mostly during historical events. Some senators have chosen to leave before facing removal.

Majority and minority parties

The "majority party" is the political party that has the most seats or can work together with others to have the most seats. If there is a tie, the vice president's party is the majority. The next largest party is called the minority party. Leaders and important positions in committees are usually from the majority party, while the minority party has their own leaders too.

Senators sit in a special semicircular pattern with 100 desks. The Democratic Party sits to the right of the leader, and the Republican Party sits to the left. Each senator picks a desk based on how long they have been in office. Leaders of each party sit in the front row in the middle. Many desks have been used since 1819, and senators often write their names inside the desk drawers.

Officers

The Senate chooses its own leaders to help run meetings and keep things organized. These leaders make sure everyone follows the rules and schedule when the Senate meets. There are also many workers who help with everyday tasks, like keeping records and keeping the Senate safe.

The vice president is the main leader of the Senate, but they don’t usually sit with the Senate all the time. When they are not there, another leader called the president pro tempore takes over. Usually, this person is a senator who has been in the Senate for a long time. They also often let other senators take turns leading to help them learn the rules.

Each political party also picks leaders to speak for them and help plan what the Senate will discuss. There are also important workers like the secretary of the Senate who keeps records, and the sergeant at arms who helps keep order.

Procedure

Daily sessions

The Senate uses special rules to run its meetings. Like the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. The Senate has a special area called a dais where the person leading the meeting, called the presiding officer, sits. Sessions usually start with a prayer and happen on weekdays. People can watch Senate meetings on TV, often on a channel called C-SPAN 2.

The Senate has many rules, but sometimes they agree to use fewer strict rules. Leaders from each political party talk before meetings to decide this. A senator can stop this agreement, but it doesn’t happen often. The presiding officer makes sure everyone follows the rules and can use a gavel to keep order.

Sometimes a senator tells the leader they want to object to a quick agreement. This is called placing a “hold.” A hold can stop a bill from moving forward. The senator can remove the hold anytime. Holds are private between the senator and the leader, but sometimes senators tell others about their holds.

The Senate needs most of its members present to do business, called a quorum. If someone questions whether enough members are there, a clerk calls out all the senators’ names. This is usually done to delay the meeting while waiting for someone to speak or for leaders to talk. After the delay, they can agree to stop the check for a quorum.

Debate

When the Senate debates, rules decide how it works. Senators can only speak when the presiding officer calls on them, but the officer must call on the first senator who wants to speak. The officer doesn’t control who speaks next. Leaders of the biggest political groups usually get to speak first.

Senators speak to the presiding officer, saying “Mr. President” or “Madam President.” They talk about each other by their state or job, not their names. Senators speak from their desks.

There aren’t many rules about what senators can say. They can talk about almost anything, even if it isn’t the main topic. Each senator can speak twice about a bill or motion on the same day. The Senate can sometimes agree to limit speaking time, but usually, senators can speak as long as they want.

Filibuster and cloture

A filibuster is a way to stop a bill by talking about it for a very long time. Senators can give long speeches, suggest many changes, or ask for delays. The Senate can stop a filibuster by voting to end the debate, called cloture. Usually, this needs three-fifths of the Senate to agree.

In the past, ending a filibuster was hard because it needed lots of support. But now, it happens more often. If cloture is voted for, debate can still continue for up to 30 more hours.

The longest filibuster ever was over 24 hours long, spoken by Senator Strom Thurmond. Another long speech was given by Senator Cory Booker in 2025, lasting over 25 hours.

Voting

When debate ends, the Senate votes on the issue. Often, they vote by saying “Yea” or “Nay” out loud. The presiding officer decides the result. If a senator disagrees, they can ask for a recorded vote. Then, all senators’ names are called, and they say their vote.

To pass most bills, a simple majority is needed. But to end a filibuster, three-fifths of senators must agree.

Closed session

Sometimes the Senate meets in a closed session. This means the doors are closed, cameras are off, and only certain people are allowed in. Closed sessions happen when the Senate talks about very private or important topics, like national security or secret messages from the president. A senator can suggest a closed session, and it happens if another senator agrees.

Committees

The Senate uses smaller groups called committees to review bills and watch over government work. There are 16 main committees, each handling different areas like money or foreign affairs. Committees can change bills, delay them, or stop them. They also watch government departments and can call people to talk and ask questions. Each committee has a leader, usually from the biggest political group, who decides what the committee works on.

Senate office buildings

The United States Senate has three office buildings along Constitution Avenue, north of the Capitol. These buildings are the Russell Senate Office Building, the Dirksen Senate Office Building, and the Hart Senate Office Building.

Criticism

See also: Democratic backsliding in the United States, Universal suffrage, and United States Congress § Outside income and gifts

The Senate is often seen as unique because it gives each state the same number of senators, no matter how big or small the state is. This means smaller states have the same voice as larger ones. Some believe this is unfair because it does not match the idea that everyone should have equal say based on population. Over time, the difference in population between the largest and smallest states has grown, making this issue more noticeable.

However, others argue this structure helps protect the interests of smaller states and prevents larger states from always getting their way. It also adds stability and ensures different regional views are considered when making laws. Some countries, like Australia and Switzerland, have similar systems where each region gets the same number of representatives, no matter the population.

See also: Federalism, Pluralism (political theory), and Tyranny of the majority

One well-known thinker, James Madison, said the Senate helps prevent the majority from always getting everything they want, protecting smaller states. Even though Texas has many people, it only has two senators, just like smaller states, but it has many more representatives in the House.

Some experts say this setup keeps the government stable and makes sure all parts of the country are heard. Others point out that, over time, this system has sometimes helped one political party succeed even when they did not get the most votes nationwide.

Other countries also have systems where areas get equal representation, no matter their size. For example, in Australia, each state gets the same number of senators, and in Switzerland, each region gets the same number of representatives.