Christian culture

Christian culture includes the traditions and ways of living that have grown from the religion of Christianity. It has many forms because Christians live in many different places.

Christianity has taken ideas and customs from many parts of the world, such as the Middle East, ancient Greece and Rome, and many other regions. Over time, different groups within Christianity, like the Eastern and Western branches, developed their own special ways of worship and life.

Christianity has played an important role in shaping Western civilization, especially through groups like the Catholic Church and Protestantism. It also has influenced cultures in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Christians have contributed greatly to many areas of human life, such as science, medicine, art, music, and more.

Cultural influence

The Bible has shaped many parts of the world. It has helped create laws, art, writing, and education. For over 2,000 years, the Bible has been very important. It has influenced health, ideas about right and wrong, politics, and daily life.

Gutenberg Bible, was the earliest major book printed using mass-produced movable metal type in West.

As Christianity spread from the Levant to Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Europe, North Africa and Horn of Africa, different traditions grew. Important centers included Rome for Western Christianity and Constantinople for Eastern Christianity. The Byzantine Empire was a high point in Christian history. From the 1100s to the 1300s, Latin Christendom became very important in the Western world and Western culture.

Christianity has influenced cultures in Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and India. Christians in the Middle East have helped shape Arab and Islamic civilization since Islam began. They have made big contributions to the cultures of the Mashriq, Turkey, and Iran. Eastern Christian scholars helped translate the works of Greek philosophers into Arabic.

Historians say the Catholic Church has been central to Western civilization. The Eastern Orthodox Church has been important for the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East. The Oriental Orthodox Churches have shaped the cultures of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East and India. Protestants have created their own culture, contributing to education, the arts, and sciences.

Vatican City and St. Peter's Basilica.

Influence on Western culture

Main article: Role of Christianity in Western society

Notre-Dame de Paris in Paris, France, is among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of Christendom.

Christianity was very important in shaping Western civilization, especially through the Catholic Church and Protestantism. For much of history, Western culture was closely tied to Christian culture. Many people grew up with Christian ideas and traditions.

Even though early Western culture had many religions, the Catholic Church became the main force in Western Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian ideas guided many areas of life. The Church started many cathedrals, universities, monasteries, and seminaries. Medieval Christianity helped start the first modern universities. The Church also set up hospitals for poor and sick people.

Christianity helped shape education and science by starting the Western school system and the first universities. Many religious leaders contributed to science, including members of the Jesuits. Christianity helped start social welfare programs and hospitals, and influenced ideas about natural law, politics, architecture, writing, health, and family life. Christianity also helped end some old practices. Famous scientists like Newton and Galileo believed studying the world helped people understand more about God.

Architecture

Main article: Church architecture

Big churches, like cathedrals and basilicas, are often very large and have special designs that have been used for a long time. These buildings are usually beautiful and important to the places where they are found. Some well-known examples are St. Peter's Basilica, Notre Dame de Paris, and Cologne Cathedral.

As Christianity grew around the world, the way these buildings were made changed depending on what materials and skills were available in each place. Over time, many different styles appeared, like Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic. Each style looks different, and local traditions also add special details that make each building unique.

Art

Main article: Christian art

Christian art is a special kind of art that tells stories and ideas from Christianity. Many Christian groups use art, even though some have disagreed about certain types of religious pictures. There have been times when people argued against using images in worship, called iconoclasm.

Pictures of Jesus and scenes from his life are very common. Stories from the Old Testament also appear often. Images of the Virgin Mary and saints are more common in some Christian traditions than others.

Christianity uses more pictures than some other religions that do not use images, like Islam and Judaism. But there have also been times when Christians did not use many images, called aniconism in Christianity.

Illumination

Main article: Illuminated manuscript

An illuminated manuscript is a book with beautiful drawings and decorations added to the text. The oldest surviving examples are from between 400 and 600 AD, mostly from Ireland, Constantinople, and Italy. Most of these special books are from the Middle Ages, but some also come from the Renaissance in the 1400s, and a few very early ones from Late Antiquity.

These books were usually made as codices, which are like modern books, instead of old scroll shapes. Some pieces are made from papyrus. Most were written on parchment, a type of strong paper made from animal skin, with the best ones on vellum, made from calfskin.

Iconography

Main articles: Iconoclasm, Religious image, Christian icons, and Christian symbolism

Christian art started about two centuries after Jesus, using ideas from Roman, Greek, and popular art. Religious images are used in Christianity and have many detailed meanings that come from long traditions. In the early years, icons began to look more like biblical stories, though some ideas came from extra stories too.

An icon is a special religious painting, most common in Orthodox Christianity. Christianity has always used symbols. Both in Eastern and Western Christianity, many kinds of pictures of Jesus, Mary, and saints were made. Christ Pantocrator is a very common picture of Jesus.

Christian symbolism gives objects or actions special Christian meanings. Christianity uses symbols known around the world. Religious symbolism works best when it speaks to both the mind and feelings. Important pictures of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional stories were told in paintings, including the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, and stories of the Old Testament and popular saints. In the West, saints were often shown with special objects to help recognize them, but in the East, they were often labeled with words.

Each saint has a story of a good life. Symbols have been used to tell these stories in Church history. Many saints are shown with a special symbol or picture connected to their story, called an attribute or emblem, to help recognize them. Studying these is part of iconography in Art history.

Eastern Christian art

Main article: Byzantine art

When Constantinople became the capital in 330 AD, it created a new Christian art center for the Eastern Roman Empire, which later became separate. Big churches like Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles were built under Emperor Constantine and his son, Constantius II. As the Western Roman Empire fell apart, the art of the Byzantine Empire became very advanced and set standards for Christian art in touch with Constantinople.

A big problem happened over whether to use religious pictures, leading to a crisis called Iconoclasm, which lasted from 726 to 843. After this, the Eastern Church made strict rules about religious pictures. Byzantine art became very careful, with rules about how pictures should look, almost like following a script. Monumental sculptures were mostly banned. Even though Western Europe did not follow these rules, Byzantine art greatly influenced it until the Middle Ages, and remained popular for a long time. Many icons from the Cretan School were sold to Europe during the Renaissance. Artists from Byzantium were sometimes hired for projects in places like Venice and Palermo. The paintings at Castelseprio might be by a Greek artist working in Italy.

The art of Eastern Catholicism has always been close to Orthodox art from Greece and Russia. In places near the Orthodox world, like Poland, Catholic art shows Orthodox influences. The Black Madonna of Częstochowa might be of Byzantine origin. Other famous icons like the Salus Populi Romani and Our Lady of Perpetual Help in Rome have been important for centuries.

Even though there was resistance, especially in Russia, Catholic art also influenced Orthodox art in places like Romania and in the later Cretan School, which affected Greek Orthodox art under Venetian rule in the 1500s and 1600s. Artists like El Greco and Michael Damaskinos worked in both Italian and Greek styles. Even Theophanes the Cretan, who worked mainly on Mount Athos, shows Western influence.

Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, and some Muslim states around the Mediterranean, kept much of the Byzantine Empire's culture and art for centuries. Countries like Bulgaria, Serbia, and Kievan Rus', as well as places like the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Sicily, were influenced by Byzantine culture even if they were not part of the empire. Art made by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire is often called "post-Byzantine". Traditions from the Byzantine Empire, especially in icon painting and church design, continue today in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Russia, and other Eastern Orthodox countries.

Catholic art

Main article: Roman Catholic art

Roman Catholic art includes all kinds of visual works that show and support the teachings of the Catholic Church. This includes sculptures, paintings, mosaics, metalwork, embroidery, and even buildings. Catholic art has been very important in Western art since at least the 400s. The main subjects are the life of Jesus Christ, his disciples, the saints, and stories from the Jewish Old Testament.

The oldest surviving art pieces are paintings in the catacombs and meeting places of early Christians in the Roman Empire. The Roman style influenced early Christian art. Stone sarcophagi from Roman Christians show the earliest carved statues of Jesus, Mary, and Bible characters. When Christianity became legal, art became richer with things like mosaics and decorated books. The iconoclasm debate caused a split between Eastern and Western churches, after which art developed differently in each. In the West, Romanesque and Gothic art became popular, with art becoming more realistic. The Protestant Reformation led to destruction of some Catholic art, and the Church responded with dramatic Baroque and Rococo styles. In the 1800s, Catholic art was affected by modern art movements that went against the Church's focus on nature.

Artists during the Renaissance, like Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Bernini, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, and Titian, were often supported by the Church.

British art historian Kenneth Clark said that around the year 1000, Western Europe began a great period of civilization. From 1100, big churches and monasteries were built and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics, and other artworks, which were very different from the simple lives of most people at the time. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis was an early supporter of Gothic architecture and believed that loving beauty helped people get closer to God.

Later, during the Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation, Catholic artists created many famous works inspired by the Bible, like Michelangelo's Moses, David, and Pietà, Da Vinci's Last Supper, and Raphael's paintings of the Madonna. Kenneth Clarke talked about a "great burst of creative energy" in Rome between 1620 and 1660.

Protestant art

Further information: Hymnody of continental Europe, Anglican church music, Church architecture § The Reformation and its influence on church architecture, and Lutheran art

The Protestant Reformation in the 1500s in Europe mostly rejected the old Catholic art tradition and often destroyed much of it. A new art tradition developed that made much less religious art and followed Protestant ideas, very different from the art of southern Europe and the humanist art of the High Renaissance. The Catholic Counter-Reformation reacted to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism with a stricter style of art. Protestant religious art still supported Protestant beliefs, but much less religious art was made. Protestant artists turned to non-religious art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, and still life.

Famous painters from Protestant backgrounds include Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach, Rembrandt, and Vincent van Gogh. World literature grew with works by writers like Edmund Spenser, John Milton, John Bunyan, John Donne, John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, William Wordsworth, Jonathan Swift, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, Matthew Arnold, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Theodor Fontane, Washington Irving, Robert Browning, Emily Dickinson, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Thomas Stearns Eliot, John Galsworthy, Thomas Mann, William Faulkner, and John Updike, among many others.

Education

Further information: Christian school, Christian college, Catholic school, Seminary, Cathedral school, Catholic university, and Medieval university

Universities started a long time ago during the time of Medieval Christian people. Before universities, people learned in special schools connected to big church buildings called cathedrals or in monastery schools. Monks and nuns taught students there.

The Catholic Church has always included teaching in its work. In many places, the Church ran the schools. Today, the Church has the largest school system not run by a government in the world. Many important universities in the West were started by the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church started the first universities in Europe. These schools were connected to monasteries and cathedrals. Universities grew up in places like Salerno, which became famous for medicine. Bologna University became very important for studying laws. Paris University focused on topics like religion and became well-known. Oxford University in England and Salamanca University in Spain also became important centers of learning. These schools used Latin, the Church's common language, which helped students from different places work together.

Because church leaders wanted everyone to read the Bible, they pushed for education for all children, both boys and girls. For example, church followers started Harvard College in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636. Other colleges followed, such as Yale University in 1701. Pennsylvania also became a place for learning, and Princeton University was started by another group of church followers.

Many leaders in America came from church backgrounds and helped start the country's best schools. Some of the earliest colleges in America, like Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, were founded by church groups. Other schools such as Columbia, Dartmouth, Williams, Bowdoin, Middlebury, and Amherst were also started by these groups.

Literature and poetry

Main articles: Christian literature and Christian poetry

Christian literature is writing that includes Christian ideas and beliefs. It has many different kinds of stories and books. Christian poetry is poetry that shares Christian messages or ideas. Christianity has shaped poetry in many places. Some Christian poems talk about the Bible, while others use clever comparisons to share their meanings.

The Bible itself is not usually called literature, but many people have studied it like a great book. The King James Version of the Bible is famous for its beautiful writing in English. Even people who do not follow Christianity have praised its style and its effect on the English language. The Bible has been very important for literature and history, especially in Western countries. It is one of the most printed books in the world.

Medicine and health care

When the Western Roman Empire ended around the 6th century, many cities and places for learning closed. During this time, medical knowledge did not change much. In the East, some learning continued, but in the West, most medical knowledge was kept only in the Church, where monks had a few old medical books. Christians believed it was important to help people who were sick. Bishops and wealthy Christians used their homes to care for the ill.

The Byzantine Empire was one of the first to have many medical places. Before this, the Roman Empire had hospitals, but only for soldiers and slaves, not for everyone. The Byzantine hospitals were started by the church to help poor people. These hospitals were usually separate for men and women and had places to keep people warm. They were like early versions of hospitals we know today. The first hospital was built by Leontius of Antioch between 344 to 358 for travelers and strangers. Around the same time, a deacon named Marathonius was in charge of hospitals and monasteries in Constantinople. His goal was to make cities nicer by including hospitals as important parts of the city. These early hospitals mainly helped poor people.

During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church acted like an early welfare system. It ran hospitals for older people, orphanages for children, and places to care for the sick of all ages. The Church also provided food during times when there was not enough to eat and gave food to poor people. Monks and clergy often practiced medicine, and many medical students in northern Europe took minor Holy orders. During the Age of Discovery, Catholic missionaries brought modern sciences to places like India, China, and Japan.

Today, the Roman Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of health care services in the world, with many clinics, homes for the elderly, and hospitals, especially in developing countries. The Church's role in health care goes back many years.

Music

Main article: Christian music

Christian music is music made to express Christian beliefs and feelings. It often talks about praise, worship, asking for forgiveness, and feelings of sadness. Christian music looks different in different parts of the world.

Like other kinds of music, Christian music is made and played for many reasons. People enjoy it, use it in church services, or sell it for others to listen to.

Long ago, Catholic monks created special ways to write down music. This helped churches everywhere use the same songs. This also helped create what we now call classical music in Europe. The Baroque style, which includes music, art, and buildings, was supported by the Church because it could make people feel strongly about their faith.

Many famous composers wrote beautiful Christian music. Some of these include Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert, César Franck, and Antonio Vivaldi.

Important church songs were also written by people like Martin Luther, Paul Gerhardt, George Wither, Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley, and William Cowper. Famous musicians such as Heinrich Schütz, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frederick Handel, Henry Purcell, Johannes Brahms, and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy also created great musical works.

Philosophy

Main articles: Christian philosophy and Scholasticism

Christian philosophy mixes different ideas with Christian beliefs. Scholasticism was a way of learning used in old universities from about 1100 to 1500. It helped combine ancient ideas with Christian teachings. It was not a new philosophy but a method of careful study.

Medieval philosophy was the thinking of Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages, from when the Roman Empire became Christian until the Renaissance. People studied old Greek ideas and tried to match them with religious beliefs. The Middle Ages were later called a “middle” time between ancient Greece and Rome and the Renaissance, but it was actually a long and rich time for learning. Big questions included how faith and reason relate, and the nature of God.

The Renaissance was a time when people became more interested in studying old texts and human qualities like virtue and literature. This shifted focus away from older styles of thinking. The period also brought big changes in religion and politics in Europe.

Science and technology

Main articles: Science and the Catholic Church, Scientific Revolution § Christianity, Medieval science, Medieval technology, and Christianity and science

Early ideas about how Christianity and science fit together were different from later ideas. Some early views caused disagreements, but later discoveries showed how they could work together. A Christian thinker named John Habgood said that the world has both good and hard things, and these might be part of how the world was created. Another thinker, Robert John Russell, looked at how modern science and Christian beliefs can match up or differ.

Important Christian thinkers like Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas believed that scriptures could have many meanings. They thought future discoveries could help explain these meanings. The idea that God made the world like a system that works on its own inspired many Christians to study nature.

Modern historians have found that Christianity was not a barrier to science. In fact, monks saved many old writings, and the church helped start many universities. Thomas Aquinas said reason and faith go together and encouraged learning. Some historians believe Christianity was key to the start of modern science. Many scholars agree that Christianity inspired people to study nature carefully.

Christians have made big contributions to science and technology, including medicine. Many Nobel Prize winners have identified as Christian.

Eastern Christianity

Byzantine science was mostly about classic learning and helped carry this knowledge to the Islamic world and later to Italy. Many important scholars worked within the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Byzantine Empire kept studying old Greek ideas thanks to schools like the University of Constantinople. Monasteries focused on religious texts, but other schools studied science and math.

Byzantine scientists used math to build amazing structures like the Hagia Sophia church. Later Byzantine thinkers thought math was a way to understand the world. Middle Eastern Christians, especially groups like the Church of the East, helped translate Greek ideas into Arabic. They worked in centers like the School of Nisibis and the academy of Jundishapur.

When Byzantine scholars moved to Western Europe, they brought knowledge that helped start the Renaissance.

Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic Church and science

The Catholic Church has believed that science and religion can work together. Thomas Aquinas taught that reason and faith are harmonious. The Church has supported scientific study for centuries, including in schools. Pope John Paul II said that the Bible teaches us about our relationship with God, not scientific details.

The Church has had a big impact on learning in Europe. After the Western Roman Empire fell, monasteries kept learning alive. Cathedrals later became early universities, and the Church has founded many schools worldwide. The Church has supported many scientists.

The Cistercian order used special number signs and were early leaders in technology. They built beautiful churches and helped spread new ideas in farming and engineering.

Some critics say the Church slowed progress by opposing certain scientists, but many Catholic priests and laypeople have been important in science. They have worked in fields like astronomy, genetics, and physics. Examples include Gregor Mendel, who helped start genetics, and Georges Lemaître, who suggested the Big Bang theory.

Jesuits in science

Main article: List of Jesuit scientists

The Jesuits have made big contributions to science. They studied earthquakes and are known for their work in seismology. By the 18th century, they had helped develop tools like pendulum clocks and telescopes, and made discoveries about Jupiter, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn’s rings.

Protestant

See also: Merton Thesis and Quakers in science

Protestant beliefs have supported science. Some thinkers believe that Protestant values encouraged careful study of the world as a way to understand God’s creation. This helped lead to the Scientific Revolution in the 17th and 18th centuries. Protestant scientists were often members of groups like the Royal Society in England.

Thought and work ethic

The idea of "Christian finance" is about banking and money. It started many years ago. Groups like the Knights Templar worked with money, even though there were rules against some money activities.

Because of Christian beliefs, people thought it was good to use their minds and skills. They learned about the world and invented new things. This helped grow learning and science. Working hard, saving money, and doing jobs well became important. These ideas helped make better machines and ways to make things. This led to bigger factories and more money for everyone. This changed business and technology.

Some Christian groups, like Episcopalians and Presbyterians, have often been successful and educated. Many rich and powerful families in the United States came from these groups. The growth of Protestantism in Europe helped develop banking and business in countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands.

Festivals

Main article: Liturgical year

Religious life

Main article: Sacrament

In Christian belief, sacraments are special rites that help people feel closer to God. These rites were started by Jesus. The word "sacrament" comes from a Latin word meaning "mystery."

The two most common sacraments for all Christians are Baptism and the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion. Many Christian groups also recognize five more sacraments: Confirmation, Holy orders, Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony.

Today, most Christian groups do not require boys to have a special surgery called circumcision. Worship can look different for special events like baptisms or weddings, or on important feast days. Many churches have special classes for children during worship, often called Sunday school or Sabbath school. These classes teach children in a way that suits their age.

Family life

Christian culture places a strong focus on family life. Many Christian traditions, such as infant baptism, mark important moments in a child's life and connect families to their faith. Different Christian groups have their own special ways of showing love and support for families.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also highly values families, encouraging members to marry and have children. Families in this tradition often stay close for many generations.

Cuisine

Main article: Christian dietary laws

For most Christians, there are no rules about which animals they can eat. This idea comes from a story where Saint Peter saw a sheet with many animals falling from the sky. However, there are a few guidelines. Christians often say a prayer before meals to thank God for the food.

Some Christian groups have special ways of preparing meat, and some choose not to eat meat at certain times, like during Lent. Drinking alcohol is allowed in moderation for some Christians, but many groups advise against it. All Christians agree that being drunk is wrong.

Christian meals often reflect the cultures where Christians live. Christmas meals are especially important and can be very different depending on where you are. For example, in Sicily, people might eat twelve types of fish on Christmas Eve. In the United Kingdom and similar places, a Christmas dinner often includes turkey, potatoes, vegetables, and special desserts like Christmas pudding or mince pies.

Cleanliness

Main articles: Ablution in Christianity, Hygiene in Christianity, and [Cantharus (Christianity)](/wiki/Cantharus_(Christianity)

The Bible talks about ways to stay clean, like after certain body changes or after being near animals. Christian groups, such as the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, have special washing rules, like washing hands after using the bathroom or before praying.

Christianity has always focused on staying clean. Even though some early Christian leaders didn’t like how people bathed together in Roman times, they still encouraged washing. Churches built special places to wash, and leaders like Pope Gregory the Great said washing was important for health.

Big bath houses were built in places like Constantinople and Antioch. Popes kept baths in their homes and in churches, where people could go to wash. In medieval towns like Paris, Regensburg, and Naples, public baths were common. Monks also helped start spas. Even Protestant groups helped develop spas in Britain.

Cleaning stayed important even after the Roman Empire ended. By the Middle Ages, making soap became big business in places like Antwerp, Castile, Marseille, Naples, and Venice. By the 1800s, being clean became a big part of life in England, along with ideas about being respectful and making progress. Groups like The Salvation Army helped people stay clean by giving out hygiene products.

In many Christian countries, people use water to stay clean after using the toilet. In places like Catholic countries, bidets are common, and in some Orthodox and Protestant countries like Greece and Finland, people use bidet showers.

Christian pop culture

Further information: Contemporary Christian music and Christian video game

Christian pop culture is how Christians show their faith through everyday things they do, watch, and enjoy. This includes cooking, clothes, movies, games, music, books, and sports. This culture comes from how Christians live together and share their beliefs.

Today, Christian pop culture is shaped by new technologies like radio, television, and video games. Big companies help make and share Christian movies, music, and books. Some popular Christian movies come from big studios and tell stories from the Bible or have strong Christian messages. Smaller Christian filmmakers also make movies for specific groups of believers.

Film industry

Main article: Christian film industry

The Christian film industry makes movies with messages that match Christian beliefs. These films are made for Christian viewers and can focus on any part of Christianity. Some well-known movies with Christian themes are made by big studios and shown to everyone, not just Christians.

Televangelism

Main article: Televangelism

Further information: Christian television and Christian Radio

Televangelism uses radio and television to share Christian teachings. Some ministers use TV and radio as their main way to reach people, while others also lead churches. This started in the United States, where many people could access TV and radio, and it has now spread to other countries. Christian television can include many types of shows, such as dramas, comedies, and movies, all with Christian messages.

Christianophile

A Christianophile is someone who really likes or appreciates Christianity. This can include its culture, Christian history, Christendom, or the Christian people.

People might like Christianity itself or things like its philosophy, theology, music, literature, art, architecture, and festivals.

Christianity and Christian culture are seen positively in many places that aren’t traditionally Christian. This includes Hong Kong, Macau, India, Japan, Lebanon, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.

Even in some European countries, people are showing more respect for Christianity. This includes Austria, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, and the United Kingdom.