Dynasties of China

Dynasties of China

For most of its history until the 20th century, China was made up of kingdoms or states ruled by hereditary monarchs. This system began with Yu the Great around 2070 BC and ended in 1912 when the Xuantong Emperor, Puyi stepped down. During this time, China was organized around families of emperors who passed power from one generation to the next.

Many of these ruling families were from the main Han ethnic group, but sometimes leaders from other groups took control, especially after tough times or big fights. These are called conquest dynasties.

We often talk about Chinese history by looking at these ruling families or dynasties. This helps us understand the time periods and what happened during them. For example, things made during the Ming dynasty are called Ming porcelain.

The Zhou dynasty was the longest, lasting about 790 years. The biggest in size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on which history book you read. Chinese rulers sometimes called their rule the Tiāncháo, meaning "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty." Neighboring lands would respect them by calling them "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" or "Tiāncháo Dàguó," which means "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State" or "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State."

Terminology

The Chinese word 朝 (cháo) means "morning" or "today". Later, it came to mean the rule of a leader. When talking about ancient China, people use words like:

• 朝 (cháo; 'dynasty')
• 朝代 (cháodài; 'dynastic era')
• 王朝 (wángcháo; 'royal dynasty')
• 皇朝 (huángcháo; 'imperial dynasty')

History

Start of dynastic rule

Yu the Great is known as the first ruler of China's first dynasty, the Xia dynasty. In early China, rulers had a lot of power and controlled the land. The throne was usually passed down in the male family, but sometimes others close to the ruler could take power.

Before a new dynasty began, there was often a time when a new group got ready to take over. For example, the Zhou existed before they conquered the Shang and started their own dynasty. In the same way, the state of Qin existed before they united China and started the Qin dynasty.

Dynastic transition

The rise and fall of dynasties was a common pattern in Chinese history. Some people thought the success or failure of a dynasty depended on how the rulers behaved, while others looked at how the rulers governed the country.

Dynasties changed in two main ways: through military conquest or when a new ruler took power. For example, the Jin dynasty took over the Liao through military campaigns, and the Yuan later united China proper. Other times, new rulers would take the throne from within, like when the Cao Wei followed the Eastern Han, or the Liang dynasty followed the Southern Qi.

It's important to note that the change from one dynasty to another was often not quick. For example, the Qing dynasty began in 1636, even though people often say they took over from the Ming in 1644. The Ming still had rulers in Southern Ming until 1662, and there were other groups fighting for control during this time.

End of dynastic rule

Dynastic rule ended in China in 1912 when the Republic of China replaced the Qing dynasty after the Xinhai Revolution. There were a few short attempts to bring back dynasties after this, but they did not succeed in ruling the country. The abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in 1912 is seen as the final end of China's long history of dynasties.

Political legitimacy

China was sometimes split into different areas ruled by different dynasties. Each dynasty had its own courts and rules. This happened during times like the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.

Dynasties often argued about who was the rightful ruler. They used ideas like the Mandate of Heaven to explain why they were correct. Han-led dynasties might say that non-Han rulers were not rightful leaders, while non-Han dynasties would say they followed Chinese traditions. These arguments happened in many periods of history.

Main article: Mandate of Heaven

Agnatic lineages

The Emperor Guangwu of Han and the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han were from the same family but started different ruling lines.

Many Chinese dynasties were led by families connected through fathers and grandfathers. Even when these families started separate dynasties, historians gave them different names. This is because each dynasty had its own title or way of ruling, even if the families were linked.

Some dynasties also claimed to come from earlier royal families to make their rule seem more rightful, even if these claims were not always true.

The agnatic links of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:

• Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou

  • The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty
  • The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou

• Western Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song

  • The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the Han dynasty
  • The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han
  • The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han
  • The Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu

• Western Jin and Eastern Jin

  • The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynasty
  • The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a descendant of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a descendant of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya

• Han-Zhao and Hu Xia

  • The Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)
  • The Han-Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers

• Former Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan

  • The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong
  • The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
  • The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan

• Northern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei

  • The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)
  • The Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa Pigu
  • The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a descendant of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
  • The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei

• Southern Qi and Liang dynasty

  • The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao
  • The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi

• Western Liang and Tang dynasty

  • The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li
  • The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang

• Later Han and Northern Han

  • The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu
  • The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han

• Liao dynasty and Western Liao

  • The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü
  • The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was a descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao

• Northern Song and Southern Song

  • The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the Song dynasty
  • The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song

• Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan

  • The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin
  • The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan

• Ming dynasty and Southern Ming

  • The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu
  • The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor

• Later Jin and Qing dynasty

  • The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro
  • The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty

Classification

Central Plain dynasties

The Central Plain is a large area along the lower part of the Yellow River, where Chinese civilization began. "Central Plain dynasties" are those whose main cities were in this area. These dynasties could be from the Han people or from other groups.

Unified dynasties

"Unified dynasties" are dynasties that brought all of China proper together under one rule. China proper is the traditional home of the Han people, but it is not the same as the whole country of China today. Important thinkers like Confucius and Mencius talked about the idea of great unity. Historians say several dynasties unified China proper, including the Qin, Western Han, Xin, Eastern Han, Western Jin, Sui, Tang, Wu Zhou, Northern Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.

Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties

Main article: Conquest dynasty

Some dynasties were started by people who were not Han but later adopted Han culture. These are called "infiltration dynasties." Examples include the Han-Zhao and Northern Wei, founded by the Xiongnu and Xianbei groups.

Other dynasties were started by non-Han peoples who kept their own cultures. These are called "conquest dynasties." Examples are the Liao and Yuan dynasties, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples. These terms can be debated by historians.

Naming convention

Chinese rulers often chose a special name for their kingdom, called a guóhào, when starting a new dynasty. This name was used both inside the country and when dealing with other nations.

Dynasties usually picked their names from a few main sources. Sometimes they used the title the ruler had before becoming a king. Other times, they chose the name of an old state that lived in the same place. Some dynasties also used the name of an earlier dynasty they claimed to come from. Finally, many dynasties chose names that had good luck or special meaning.

Historians often give dynasties extra names to tell them apart. If two dynasties share the same name, they might add directions like "Northern" or "Southern" or words like "Former" or "Later". Sometimes they use the family name of the rulers. These extra names help us know which dynasty someone is talking about.

Territorial extent

The earliest Chinese dynasties began near the Yellow River and the Yangtze. Over time, they grew and ruled many areas beyond this region.

At different times, Chinese dynasties ruled places such as China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong), Taiwan, Manchuria, Sakhalin, Mongolia, Vietnam, Tibet, Xinjiang, parts of Central Asia, the Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, and Siberia.

The largest dynasties by land were the Yuan dynasty and the Qing dynasty. The Yuan dynasty's borders are sometimes unclear, but the Qing dynasty's borders were set by treaties with other countries.

Using the Chinese tributary system, Chinese dynasties had influence over other states and tribes. This system began during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century. Today, the lands ruled by the Qing dynasty form the basis for the territories of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China.

List of major Chinese dynasties

This list shows the main dynasties of China that are often seen in simple timelines. It is not a complete list of all Chinese history.

Timelines

Further information: Timeline of Chinese history

Timeline of major historical periods

Spring and Autumn

Warring States

Qin–Han

Jin–Northern and Southern Dynasties

Sui–Tang

Five Dynasties–Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–Yuan

Ming–Qing

ROC–PRC

Timeline of major regimes