Adyghe language

Adyghe, also called West Circassian, is a Northwest Caucasian language spoken by the western groups of Circassians. It comes from the area known as Circassia in the Caucasus mountains. Today, Adyghe is one of the two official languages of Adygea, with Russian being the other. Many people who speak Adyghe live in Russia, but large groups also live in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Israel after their ancestors moved there following a sad time in history.

The main form of Adyghe writing and speaking uses the Chemguy way of speaking. This was chosen because it is easier to learn and use than other ways. Still, ideas from Shapsug and Bzhedug ways also helped shape the language.

Adyghe is very close to the Kabardian or East Circassian language. Some people think they are just different versions, or dialects, of one Circassian language, while others see them as two separate but related languages. Even with some differences in sound, people who speak Adyghe and Kabardian can usually understand each other well. Both languages are called Adyghe by their speakers, but in books and government work, “Adyghe” means the western tribes’ language, and “Kabardian” means the language of the two eastern tribes, the Kabardians and Besleney. Other languages like Ubykh, Abkhaz, and Abaza are related to Adyghe but not as closely.

Classification

Main article: Proto-Circassian language

Adyghe is part of the Northwest Caucasian language family. Studies show that the common language from which this family comes split into three branches—Circassian, Abkhaz, and Ubykh—about 5,000 years ago.

History

Adyghe has mostly been spoken rather than written throughout its history. Its stories and traditions, like the Nart sagas, helped keep the language alive.

Over time, Adyghe has borrowed words from other languages such as Turkic, Arabic, Persian, and Russian. These borrowed words often change to fit the sounds of Adyghe. After many Adyghe speakers moved to places like the Ottoman Empire in 1864, the language changed in those areas, sometimes using more words from Arabic or Turkish.

Standardization of Adyghe

Pre-Soviet attempts

Early efforts to create a written form of Adyghe were made by people like Natouko Sheretluk, who opened a school and made an Adyghe alphabet. Leonty Lyulye, a Russian official, published a dictionary and grammar in 1846. Another person, Wumar Bersey, published a book about the Adyghe alphabet in 1853. March 14 is now celebrated as the Day of the Adyghe Language.

Modern Standard Adyghe

The modern standard form of Adyghe was developed by Daut Ashkhamaf. He based it mostly on the Chemguy dialect but included elements from other dialects like Bzhedug and Shapsug. This standard form helps speakers of different dialects understand each other better.

Attempts to unify Adyghe and Kabardian

There have been ideas to combine Adyghe and Kabardian into one Circassian language or to pick one as the main language for all Circassians. Some leaders were accused of wrongdoings and faced serious consequences. Later, efforts were made to create a shared writing system for both languages, but these were not fully accepted. Some groups continue to work toward uniting the Circassian languages. The International Circassian Association aims to create a single Circassian language.

Adyghe outside Circassia

Turkey

Turkey is home to the largest Circassian population, but the Adyghe language does not have official recognition there. Historically, schools taught the language in Istanbul until they closed in 1923. Today, many younger people do not speak the language well, though older generations often do.

In recent years, efforts have grown to teach Adyghe in schools. Some public schools now offer it as an optional class, but there are many challenges. Teachers often lack specialized training, and materials are difficult to use for students learning it as a second language. Online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic helped connect students with teachers from the Caucasus.

Israel

In Israel, the Circassian towns of Kfar Kama and Rehaniya have strong language use. Adyghe is used daily at home, in schools, and in public places. Schools teach the language starting in 6th grade, using textbooks from the Republic of Adygea.

Jordan

In Jordan, Adyghe has been taught in special schools, such as one in Amman supported by King Hussein of Jordan. This helps preserve the language and traditions. However, many younger people now speak Arabic more often.

Syria

Before the 1967 war, the Golan Heights was an important place for preserving the Adyghe language. Schools and newspapers helped keep the language alive. After the war, many Circassians left the area, and the language declined due to limited support and the widespread use of Arabic.

Publications

Many books have been written in or translated into Adyghe. An important moment was when the "ABC-book of the Circassian language" was published by Wumar Bersey in Tbilisi on March 14, 1853. This date is now celebrated as the Day of the Adyghe Language and Writing. In the early 1900s, new textbooks about religion and ethics were published, like "The History of Islam" (Мыслъымэн Тхыдэ) in 1918.

There is an Adyghe translation of the Quran by Iskhak Mashbash. The New Testament and many books of the Old Testament have also been published in Adyghe by the Institute for Bible Translation in Moscow. In 2020, a special book called Ecclesiastes was released in both Adyghe and Kabardian, another language from the North Caucasus in the Russian Federation.

Adyghe Maq is the main newspaper for the Adyghe language. It is published in Maykop, the capital of the Adyghe Republic, five times a week.

Vitality

The Adyghe language, including all its dialects, was considered vulnerable in 2009 according to a map made by UNESCO. This means that the language was at risk of being lost in the future.

Dialects

Black Sea coast dialects

• Shapsug dialect (Шапсыгъабзэ)
  • North Shapsugs, Great Shapsugs, Kuban Shapsugs (Шапсыгъэ шху) dialect
    • Kfar Kama dialect (Кфар Камэм ишапсыгъэбзэ)
  • Chemguy-Shapsugs, Pseuşko accent (Кӏэмгуе-шапсыгъ)
  • South Shapsugs, Small Shapsugs, Coastal Shapsugs, Black Sea Shapsugs (Шапсыгъэ-цӏыкӏу) dialect
  • Hakuchi dialect (Хьакӏуцубзэ, Къарацхаибзэ)
• Natukhai dialect (Нэтӏхъуаджэбзэ)
• Zhaney dialect

Kuban River dialects

• Bzhedug dialect (Бжъэдыгъубзэ): spoken by Circassians in the Republic of Adygea and the Biga district of the city of Çanakkale in Turkey
• Chemguy (Adyghe: Кӏэмыгуябзэ, Кӏэмгуибзэ): literary standard of Adyghe. Also spoken by Circassians in the Republic of Adygea
• Abzakh dialect (Aбдзэхабзэ): spoken by Circassians in the village of Rehaniya in Israel and Circassians in Syria from the Golan Heights
• Mamkhegh dialect
• Yegeruqay dialect
• Hatuqay dialect
• Makhosh dialect

Phonology

Main article: Adyghe phonology

Adyghe has between 50 and 60 different sounds called consonants, depending on the dialect. All dialects have a special sound called a glottal stop that can change in interesting ways. One special feature is found only in the Abzakh dialect, where there are three types of glottal stops: plain, labialized, and palatalized.

The Shapsug (Black Sea) dialect includes a very unusual sound, a voiceless bidental fricative, which is different from sounds found in other forms of Adyghe.

Adyghe has only three main vowel sounds.

Orthography

The Adyghe alphabet has some differences between how letters look and how they sound, which can be confusing for people learning the language. For example, the letter Кӏ looks like it should sound one way, but it actually sounds like Чӏ.

There are special rules for how some letters are used together. For example, the letter ы is not written after у, й, or certain other letters. When у is the first letter of a word, it is pronounced differently than when it appears in the middle of a word.

Adyghe used different writing systems in the past. From ancient times until the 15th century, they used the Greek alphabet. Later, they used the Arabic script, and then switched to a Latin alphabet in 1927. Today, the Cyrillic alphabet is used in Russia, while Turkey uses a Latin-based alphabet for teaching the language.

Modern alphabet

Orthography rules

Vowels

The vowels are written as ы, э, and а. Other letters represent combinations of sounds.

Other writing systems

History

Adyghe did not have widespread literacy until modern times. In ancient times, they used the Greek alphabet. Later, they used the Arabic script, and in 1927, they switched to a Latin alphabet. Today, Cyrillic is used in Russia, and Turkey uses a Latin-based alphabet.

In 1853, an educator named Umar Bersey published the first book in Adyghe using the Arabic script. Over time, improvements were made to this writing system. In 1918, a primer was published, leading to more books and newspapers in Adyghe. In 1927, the script changed to Latin as part of a Soviet campaign. Later, it switched to Cyrillic.

In Turkey, a new Latin alphabet was created to help teach the language to younger generations.

Adyghe Arabic alphabet

Below table shows the Adyghe Perso-Arabic alphabet as it was officially adopted between 1918 and 1927.

Adyghe Latin alphabet

The Adyghe orthography was officially switched to the Latin alphabet in 1927. The Adyghe Latin alphabet was compiled and finalized a year prior, in 1926. This alphabet was the sole official script in the Soviet Union. The Adyghe Latin alphabet consisted of 50 letters, many of them newly created, some even borrowed from Cyrillic. Another interesting feature of this iteration of the Adyghe Latin alphabet was that there was no distinction between lower case and upper case letters. Each letter only had one single case.

Below table shows Adyghe Latin alphabet as it was officially adopted between 1927 and 1938.

Latin alphabet in Turkey

In 2012, the Circassian Language Association in Turkey called for creating a standard Latin script for all Circassian people. They wanted to make it easier to teach the language because most Circassians in Turkey use the Latin alphabet for Turkish. They created a Latin script based on the Turkish alphabet, using the Abzakh dialect, which is the most spoken dialect in Turkey.

• Adyghe Arabic alphabet used before 1927

• Comparison of Adyghe Latin and Adyghe Cyrillic alphabets

• Adyghe Arabic alphabet letters

• .svg)

  Adyghe Latin alphabet letters

Cyrillic	Arabic	Latin	IPA	Examples
А а	ا	A a	[aː]	ачъэ, ače, 'goat'апчъы, apčy, 'they count'
Б б	ب	B b	[b]	баджэ, badźe, 'fox'бэ, be, 'a lot'
В в	ڤ	V v	[v]	жъвэ, z̄ve, 'oar', лавэ, lave, 'lava'
Г г	ݝ	G g	[ɣ]	гыны, gyny, 'powder'чъыгы, čygy, 'tree'
Гу гу	گو	Gw gw	[ɡʷ]	гу, gw, 'heart'гущыӏ, gwśyx̧, 'word'
Гъ гъ	غ	Ǧ ǧ	[ʁ]	гъатхэ, ǧatxe, 'spring'гъэмаф, ǧemaf, 'summer'
Гъу гъу	غو	Ǧw ǧw	[ʁʷ]	гъунэгъу, ǧwneǧw, 'neighbour'гъунджэ, ǧwndźe, 'mirror'
Д д	د	D d	[d]	дыджы, dydźy, 'bitter'дахэ, daxe, 'pretty'
Дж дж	ج	Dź dź	[d͡ʒ]	джан, dźan, 'shirt'лъэмыдж, łemydź, 'bridge'
Дз дз	ذ	Dz dz	[d͡z]	дзыо, dzyo, 'bag'дзын, dzyn, 'to throw'
Дзу дзу	ذو	Dzy dzy	[d͡ʐʷ]	хьандзу, handzw, 'rick'хьандзуачӏ, handzwaç̌, '[lower] rick'
Е е	ئە / ەي	É é, Je je	[ɜj] [jɜ]	ешэн, ješen, 'to catch'еплъын, jepłyn, 'to look at'
Ё ё	–	Jo jo	[jo]	ёлк, jolk, 'Christmas tree'
Ж ж	ڒ	Ž ž	[ʒ]	жэ, že, 'mouth'жакӏэ, žaḉe, 'beard'
Жъ жъ	ظ	Z̄ z̄	[ʐ]	жъы, z̄y, 'old'жъажъэ, z̄az̄e, 'slow'
Жъу жъу	ظو	Z̄w z̄w	[ʐʷ]	жъун, z̄wn, 'to melt'жъуагъо, z̄waǧo, 'star'
Жь жь	ژ	Ź ź	[ʑ]	жьыбгъэ, źybǧe, 'wind'жьао, źao, 'shadow'
З з	ز	Z z	[z]	занкӏэ, zanḉe, 'straight'зандэ, zande, 'steep'
И и	ئي / ي	I i	[ɘj] [jɘ]	ихьан, ihan, 'to enter'икӏыпӏ, iḉyṗ, 'exit'
Й й	ي	J j	[j]	йод, jod, 'iodine'бай, baj, 'rich'
К к	ك	K k	[k]	кнопк, knopk, 'button'команд, komand, 'team; command'
Ку ку	کو	Kw kw	[kʷ]	кушъэ, kws̄e, 'cradle'ку, kw, 'cart'
Къ къ	ق	Q q	[q]	къалэ, qale, 'city'къэкӏон, qeḉon, 'to come'
Къу къу	قو	Qw qw	[qʷ]	къухьэ, qwhe, 'ship'къушъхьэ, qws̄he, 'mountain'
Кӏ кӏ	ڃ	Ķ ķ, Ḉ ḉ	[kʼ] [t͡ʃʼ]	кӏымаф, ḉymaf, 'winter'кӏыхьэ, ḉyhe, 'long'кӏэ, ķe, 'tail'шкӏэ, šķe, 'calf'
Кӏу кӏу	ࢰو	Ķw ķw	[kʷʼ]	кӏон, ķon, 'to walk'кӏуакӏэ, ķwaḉe, 'gait'
Л л	ل	L l	[l] [ɮ]	лагъэ, laǧe, 'painted'лы, ly, 'meat'
Лъ лъ	ݪ	Ł ł	[ɬ]	лъэбэкъу, łebeqw, 'step'лъащэ, łaśe, 'lame'
Лӏ лӏ	ࢦ	Ļ ļ	[ɬʼ]	лӏы, ļy, 'man'лӏыгъэ, ļyǧe, 'bravery'
М м	م	M m	[m]	мазэ, maze, 'moon'мэлы, mely, 'sheep'
Н н	ن	N n	[n]	нэ, ne, 'eye'ны, ny, 'mother'
О о	ئۆ / ۆ	O o	[ɜw] [wɜ]	мощ, moś, 'that'коны, kony, 'bin'о, o, 'you'осы, osy, 'snow'ощхы, ośxy, 'rain'
П п	پ	P p	[p]	пэ, pe, 'nose'сапэ, sape, 'dust'
Пӏ пӏ	ࢠ	Ṗ ṗ	[pʼ]	пӏэ, ṗe, 'bed'пӏэшъхьагъ, ṗes̄haǧ, 'pillow'
Пӏу пӏу	ࢠو	Ṗw ṗw	[pʷʼ]	пӏун, ṗwn, 'to rise; to adopt'пӏур, ṗwr, 'pupil; apprentice'
Р р	ر	R r	[r]	рикӏэн, riḉen, 'to pour'Adyghe: риӏон rix̧on 'to tell'
С с	س	S s	[s]	сэ, se, 'I, me'сэшхо, sešxo, 'sabre'
Т т	ت	T t	[t]	тэтэжъ, tetez̄, 'grandfather'тэ, te, 'we, us'
Тӏ тӏ	ط	Ţ ţ	[tʼ]	тӏы, ţy, 'ram'ятӏэ, jaţe, 'dirt'
Тӏу тӏу	طو	Ţw ţw	[tʷʼ]	тӏурыс, ţwrys, 'old'тӏурытӏу, ţwryţw, 'pair'
У у	و	U u, W w	[ɘw] [wɘ]	ушхун, ušxwn, 'to straighten'убэн, uben, 'to tamp; to smoothen'
Ф ф	ف	F f	[f]	фыжьы, fyźy, 'white'фэен, fejen, 'to want'
Х х	ݗ	X x	[x]	хы, xy, 'sea; six'хасэ, xase, 'council'
Хъ хъ	خ	Ḩ ḩ	[χ]	хъыен, ḩyjen, 'to move'пхъэн, pḩan, 'to sow'
Хъу хъу	خو	Ḩw ḩw	[χʷ]	хъун, ḩwn, 'to happen'хъурай, ḩwraj, 'circle'
Хь хь	ح	H h	[ħ]	хьэ, he, 'dog'хьаку, hakw, 'oven'
Ц ц	ث	C c	[t͡s]	цагэ, cage, 'rib'цы, cy, 'body hair'
Цу цу	ثو	Cw cw	[t͡ʂʷ]	цуакъэ, cwaqe, 'shoe'цу, cw, 'ox'
Цӏ цӏ	ڗ	Ç ç	[t͡sʼ]	цӏынэ, çyne, 'wet'цӏыфы, çyfy, 'person'
Ч ч	چ	Ć ć	[t͡ʃ]	чэфы, ćefy, 'cheerful'чэты, ćety, 'chicken'
Чъ чъ		Č č	[t͡ʂ]	чъыгай, čygaj, 'oak'чъыӏэ čyx̧e 'cold'
Чӏ чӏ		Ç̌ ç̌	[t͡ʂʼ]	чӏыпӏэ, ç̌yṗe, 'area'чӏыфэ, ç̌yfe, 'debt'
Ш ш		Š š	[ʃ]	шы, šy, 'brother'шыблэ, šyble, 'thunder'
Шъ шъ	ص	S̄ s̄	[ʂ]	шъэ, s̄e, 'hundred'шъабэ, s̄abe, 'soft'
Шъу шъу	صو	S̄w s̄w	[ʂʷ]	шъугъуалэ, s̄wǧwale, 'envious'шъукъакӏу, s̄wqaķw, 'to come'
Шӏ шӏ	ض	Ş̄ ş̄	[ʂʼ]	шӏын, ş̄yn, 'to do'шӏэныгъ, ş̄enyǧ, 'knowledge'
Шӏу шӏу	ضو	Ş̄w ş̄w	[ʂʷʼ]	шӏуцӏэ, ş̄wçe, 'black'шӏуфэс, ş̄wfes, 'greetings'
Щ щ	ش	Ś ś	[ɕ]	щагу, śagw, 'yard'щатэ, śate, 'sour cream'
(Ъ ъ)	–	–	–
Ы ы	ئہـ‍ / ‍ہ‍	Y y	[ɘ]	ыкӏи, yḉi, 'and also'зы, zy, 'one'
(Ь ь)	–	–	[◌ʲ ]
Э э	ئە / ە	E e	[ɜ]	ӏэтаж x̧etaž 'floor'нэнэжъ, nenez̄, 'grandmother'
Ю ю	یو	Ju ju	[ju]	Юсыф, Jusyf, 'Joseph'Юныс, Junys, 'Jonah'
Я я	یا	Ja ja	[jaː]	яй, jaj, 'theirs'ябгэ, jabge, 'evil'
Ӏ ӏ	ئ	X̧ x̧	[ʔ]	ӏэ x̧e 'hand'кӏасэ, ḉase, 'like'
Ӏу ӏу	ؤ	X̧w x̧w	[ʔʷ]	ӏукӏэн x̧wḉen 'to meet'ӏусын x̧wsyn 'to be sitting near'ӏудан x̧wdan 'thread'

Forms				IPA	Adyghe Cyrillic equivalent	Adyghe Latin equivalent (1927–1938)	Unicode
Isolated	Final	Medial	Initial
ا	ـا	ـا	آ	[aː]	А а	ᴀ	U+0622 U+0627
ئ	ـئ	ـئـ	ئـ	[ʔ]	Ӏ ӏ	h	U+0626
ؤ	ـؤ	-	-	[ʔʷ]	Ӏу ӏу	hv	U+0624
ە	ـە	-	ئە	[a]	Э э Е е1	e	U+06D5
‍ہ‍	ـہ‍	ـہـ	ئہـ	[ə]	Ы ы	ə	U+06C1 and U+200D1
ب	ـب	ـبـ	بـ	[b]	Б б	ʙ	U+0628
ت	ـت	ـتـ	تـ	[t]	Т т	t	U+062A
ث	ـث	ـثـ	ثـ	[t͡s]	Ц ц	c	U+062B
پ	ـپ	ـپـ	پـ	[p]	П п	ᴘ	U+067E
ࢠ	ـࢠ	ـࢠـ	ࢠـ	[pʼ]	Пӏ пӏ		U+08A0
ن	ـن	ـنـ	نـ	[n]	Н н	n	U+0646
ح	ـح	ـحـ	حـ	[ħ]	Хь хь	ɦ	U+062D
ج	ـج	ـجـ	جـ	[d͡ʒ]	Дж дж	ǥ	U+062C
خ	ـخ	ـخـ	خـ	[χ]	Хъ хъ		U+062E
ݗ	ـݗ	ـݗـ	ݗـ	[x]	Х х	x	U+0757
ڃ	ـڃ	ـڃـ	ڃـ	[kʼ][tʃʼ]	Кӏ кӏ1	ⱪ	U+0683
چ	ـچ	ـچـ	چـ	[t͡ʃ]	Ч ч	ꝁ	U+0686
				[t͡ʂ]	Чъ чъ	đ	- 1
				[t͡ʃʼ]	ЧI чI		- 1
د	ـد	-	-	[d]	Д д	d	U+062F
ذ	ـذ	-	-	[d͡z]	Дз дз	ᴣ	U+0630
ر	ـر	-	-	[r]	Р р	r	U+0631
ز	ـز	-	-	[z]	З з	z	U+0632
ژ	ـژ	-	-	[ʑ]	Жь жь		U+0698
ڗ	ـڗ	-	-	[t͡sʼ]	Цӏ цӏ		U+0697
ڒ	ـڒ	-	-	[ʒ]	Ж ж		U+0692
س	ـس	ـسـ	سـ	[s]	С с	s	U+0633
				[ʃ]	Ш ш	ħ	- 1
ش	ـش	ـشـ	شـ	[ɕ]	Щ щ	ʃ	U+0634
ص	ـص	ـصـ	صـ	[ʂ]	Шъ шъ	š	U+0635
ض	ـض	ـضـ	ضـ	[ʃʼ]	Шӏ шӏ		U+0636
ط	ـط	ـطـ	طـ	[tʼ]	Тӏ тӏ		U+0637
ظ	ـظ	ـظـ	ظـ	[ʐ]	Жъ жъ	ⱬ	U+0638
غ	ـغ	ـغـ	غـ	[ʁ]	Гъ гъ		U+063A
ݝ	ـݝ	ـݝـ	ݝـ	[ɣ]	Г г1		U+075D
ف	ـف	ـفـ	فـ	[f]	Ф ф	f	U+0641
ق	ـق	ـقـ	قـ	[q]	Къ къ	q	U+0642
ڤ	ـڤ	ـڤـ	ڤـ	[v]	В в	w	U+06A4
ک	ـک	ـکـ	کـ	[k]	К к	k	U+0643
گ	ـگ	ـگـ	گـ	[g] ([gʷ])1	Г г (Гу гу)	g	U+06AF
ࢰ	ـࢰ	ـࢰـ	ࢰـ	[kʼ] ([kʷʼ])1	Кӏ кӏ (Кӏу кӏу)	ⱪ	U+08B0
ل	ـل	ـلـ	لـ	[l]/[ɮ]	Л л	l	U+0644
ݪ	ـݪ	ـݪـ	ݪـ	[ɬ]	Лъ лъ		U+076A
ࢦ	ـࢦ	ـࢦـ	ࢦـ	[ɬʼ]	Лӏ лӏ		U+08A6
م	ـم	ـمـ	مـ	[m]	М м	m	U+0645
و	ـو	-	ئو / و	[ɘw] [wɘ]	У у	v	U+0648
ی	ـی	ـیـ	ئیـ / یـ	[i] / [j]	И и Й й	i / j	U+06CC
ۆ	ـۆ	-	ئۆ	[ɜw] [wɜ]	О о	o	U+06C6

Letter	ᴀ	ʙ	c		d	ᴣ	e	ə	f
IPA	[aː]	[b]	[t͡s]	[t͡sʼ]	[d]	[d͡z]	[e]	[ə]	[f]
Letter	g	ǥ	ɦ	i	y	k	ꝁ	ʀ	ⱪ	l
IPA	[ɡ]	[d͡ʒ]	[ħ]	[i]	[j]	[k]	[t͡ʃ]	[ʲ]	[kʼ]	[l]
Letter			m	n	o	ᴘ		q	r	s
IPA	[ɬ]	[ɬʼ]	[m]	[n]	[o]	[p]	[pʼ]	[q]	[r]	[s]
Letter	š	ʖ	ʃ	ħ	t	ƀ	u	v	x
IPA	[ʂ]	[ʃʼ]	[ɕ]	[ʃ]	[t]	[tʼ]	[u]	[w]	[x]	[χ]
Letter	z	ⱬ			г	г̌	đ		h	w
IPA	[z]	[ʐ]	[ʑ]	[ʒ]	[ʁ]	[ɣ]	[t͡ʂ]	[t͡ʃʼ]	[ʔ]	[v]

Grammar

Main article: Adyghe grammar

Adyghe is a language that follows a special pattern in its sentences, where the subject, then the object, and finally the verb come in that order. This pattern is common in languages called Northwest Caucasian, and Adyghe uses a special way of building sentences called the ergative construction.

Vocabulary

The Adyghe language has its own special words that come from the people who speak it. It also uses words borrowed from other languages.

There are thirteen special sounds in Adyghe that have a "w" like quality. In some areas, people add three more special sounds to these.

Sample texts

Al-Fatiha الفَاتِحَةِ

John 1:1–5

Universal Declaration of Human Rights