History of Asia

The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia. The continent is home to two of the world's oldest, continuous civilizations, Chinese civilization and Indian civilization.

Asia was also home to the Mesopotamian, Ancient Egypt, Indus Valley and Yellow River civilizations. These civilizations were among the first in the world, and developed around fertile river valleys as they were conducive to agriculture. They shared similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel.

The Eurasian steppe had long been inhabited by nomads, and from the central steppes, they could reach all parts of the Asian continent. Asia has been the birthplace of many religions, including Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, and Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism. The history of Asia includes major developments such as the invention of gunpowder in medieval China and the Silk Road, which helped spread cultures, languages, and religions throughout Asia and Europe.

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Asia

Archaeologists have found evidence that people were living in India as early as 9000 to 8000 BC. These early communities lived near the Indus River and later developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation.

In Turkey, a place called Göbekli Tepe has some of the oldest stone buildings in the world, dating back to between 9500 and 8000 BC. These buildings were made with big stone pillars arranged in circles.

In China, near a town called Yixian, there is a site called Beifudi. Here, scientists found old tools and pieces of pottery from around 8000 to 7000 BC. These discoveries help us understand how people lived in very early times.

Ancient

Bronze Age

Main article: Ancient Near East

The Chalcolithic period, also called the Copper Age, began about 4500 BC. Then the Bronze Age started around 3500 BC, replacing older cultures.

The Indus Valley civilization lived from 3300 to 1300 BC in what is now India and Pakistan. Great cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had good planning and arts. This era also saw the start of the Vedic period in India from 1500 to 500 BC. During this time, the Sanskrit language grew, and the Vedas were written. These became the basis for Hinduism.

China and Vietnam were also places where people worked with metals. Bronze drums from the Dong Son Culture were found in Vietnam and southern China. In Thailand, bronze objects were found from 2100 BC. In Burma, bronze tools were found with ceramics and stone items.

Iron and Axial Age

Main article: Iron Age

Further information: Axial Age

The Iron Age brought iron tools, weapons, and armor to Asia’s big civilizations.

Middle East

The Achaemenid Empire, started by Cyrus the Great, ruled from Greece to the Indus River from the 6th to 4th centuries BC. The Persian government was highly organized, with a strong central rule and respect for other cultures. Later, Darius I improved the empire with a good system for collecting taxes and using spies to keep watch.

The main religion was Zoroastrianism, created by Zoroaster. It taught ideas like one god, doing good to be saved, and a time when good will win over evil.

Alexander the Great took over this empire in the 4th century BC, but after he died, his land split into smaller parts like the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Persia later became the Sassanid Empire.

The Roman Empire also controlled parts of Western Asia later on.

India

See also: Ancient India

The Maurya and Gupta empires are known as India’s Golden Age. They made big discoveries in science, art, and religion. Hinduism and Buddhism started in India and spread to other parts of Asia.

By 600 BC, India had many small states and kingdoms. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great came through northern India but his soldiers would not go farther, so he turned back.

Then Chandragupta Maurya started the Maurya Empire around 321 BC. It became one of the largest empires, reaching to the Himalayas, Assam, and parts of modern Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Mauryan Empire had a strong government with a big army, good leaders, and a system for collecting taxes.

Ashoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, ruled from 268 to 232 BC. He turned to Buddhism and worked for peace and helping people. After he died, the empire broke up into smaller states.

The Kushan Empire, started by people from Central Asia, ruled northern India and helped spread Buddhism along the Silk Roads.

The Gupta Empire began around AD 320 and brought stability and growth in art, science, and learning.

Classical China

Zhou dynasty

Main article: Zhou dynasty

The Zhou dynasty ruled China from 1029 BC to 258 BC. They used a system where local leaders had power but had to be loyal. The emperor was said to rule because of the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou also stopped human sacrifice and encouraged people to move into the Yangtze River valley.

But by 500 BC, the dynasty began to weaken because of fights between local leaders. New ideas from Confucius and Laozi became popular. Finally, the Zhou broke apart into the Warring States period from 402 to 201 BC.

Qin dynasty

Main article: Qin dynasty

One leader, Qin Shi Huang, ended the Zhou dynasty and started the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. He got rid of the old system and put his own leaders in charge. He built the Great Wall of China to keep out attackers. But he was very strict and made many people unhappy.

Han dynasty

Main article: Han dynasty

The Han dynasty ruled from 206 BC to 220 AD. It is remembered as a golden age for China. Emperor Wu of Han kept peace across the land. The Han people are still called Han Chinese today.

The Han kept the strong government from the Qin but were less harsh. They expanded into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia. They traded with far-away lands using the Silk Road. They also supported Confucius’ teachings and created a system to choose good leaders through exams.

Later, the Han dynasty began to weaken. By 100 AD, local leaders gained power, and taxes became heavy. Diseases and attacks by outside groups caused big problems. The Han dynasty ended in 220 AD, leading to a long period of chaos in China.

Medieval

During this period, empires in the Eastern world continued to grow through trade, movement of people, and taking over nearby areas. Gunpowder was used widely as early as the 11th century, and moveable type printing was used five hundred years before Gutenberg created his press. Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were the main philosophies in the Far East during the Middle Ages. Marco Polo was not the first Westerner to travel to the East and return with stories of this different culture, but his accounts published in the late 13th and early 14th centuries were the first to be widely read throughout Europe.

Western Asia (Middle East)

The Arabian peninsula and the surrounding Middle East and Near East regions saw big changes during the Medieval era mainly because of the spread of Islam and the creation of early Islamic empires.

In the 5th century, the Middle East was split into small, weak states; the two most important were the Sassanian Empire and the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia. The Byzantines and Sassanians kept fighting each other, showing the long rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire from the past five hundred years. The fighting made both states weaker, leaving room for a new power. Meanwhile, the nomadic Bedouin tribes in the Arabian desert became more stable, expanded trade networks, and learned more about Abrahamic religions and forms of monotheism.

While the Byzantine Roman and Sassanian Persian empires were both very weak after the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, a new power emerged in Arabia under Muhammad in Medina. In a series of quick Muslim conquests, the Rashidun army, led by the Caliphs and commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, moved through much of the Middle East, taking significant Byzantine territories in the Arab–Byzantine wars, including Syria and Egypt, and completely taking over Persia in the Muslim conquest of Persia. The following Caliphates of the Middle Ages united much of the Middle East and North Africa as one political area and helped create a broader Arab cultural identity. These Caliphates included the Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, and later the Seljuq Empire.

Following the rise of Islam, Middle Eastern civilization entered a time often called the Islamic Golden Age, marked by big developments in architecture, preserving and advancing classical knowledge, and making advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics. Scholars working in places such as Baghdad, and Cairo played key roles in sharing knowledge that later influenced Western Europe.

The power of Arab leaders decreased in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, who moved south from Central Asia. They took over Persia, Iraq Syria, Palestine, and parts of Anatolia. This time was followed by a series of attacks from Western Europe during the Crusades. In 1099, the knights of the First Crusade took Jerusalem and created the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which lasted until 1187 when Saladin took the city back. Smaller crusader states remained until 1291. In the early 13th century, a new wave of attackers, the armies of the Mongol Empire, moved through the region, attacking Baghdad in the Siege of Baghdad (1258) and going as far south as the border of Egypt, where they were stopped by the Mamluk Sultanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Mongols eventually left, but the trouble that followed changed regional power structures. In 1401, the region was further upset by the campaigns of the Turco-Mongol ruler Timur. By this time, another Turkic power had risen in northwestern Anatolia: the Ottoman Empire.

South Asia

India

The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200, is known for its many regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647, tried to expand south, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor tried to expand east, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal. When the Chalukyas tried to expand south, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who were then opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from even farther south. The Cholas, under the rule of Raja Raja Chola, could defeat their rivals and become a regional power. The Cholas expanded northward and defeated Eastern Chalukya, Kalinga and the Pala. Under Rajendra Chola the Cholas created the first notable navy of the Indian subcontinent. The Chola navy extended the influence of the Chola Empire to Southeast Asia. During this time, people whose land had been cleared to make way for growing farms were included in caste society, as were new groups of rulers. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly happened from the 12th century onward, though earlier Muslim attacks include limited moves into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Umayyad campaigns in India, during the time of the Rajput kingdoms in the 8th century.

Big economic and military powers like the Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate were established. The search for their wealth led to the Voyages of Christopher Columbus.

Sher Shah Suri of the Sur Empire of India introduced the standard rūpya coin in the 16th century now used as the currency of Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal.

The Vijayanagara Empire based in the Deccan Plateau region of South India, was created in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, supported by saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka. The empire became important as a result of efforts by the southern powers to resist and stop attacks from Turkic Islamic leaders by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it controlled almost all of South India's rulers and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river region. After taking over modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Empire, it became a notable power. The empire lasted until 1646 after a major military loss in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.

East Asia

China saw the rise and fall of the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties and therefore improvements in its government, the spread of Buddhism, and the start of Neo-Confucianism. It was a very good time for Chinese ceramics and painting. Medieval masterpieces like the Great South Gate in Todaiji, Japan, and the Tienning Temple in Peking, China are some of the buildings still standing from this time.

Sui dynasty

A new strong dynasty began to rise in the 580s, among the divided groups of China. This started when an aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou dynasty. He called himself Emperor Wen of Sui and convinced the nomadic military by giving up the Confucian scholar-gentry. Emperor Wen soon took over the southern Chen dynasty and united China once more under the Sui dynasty. The emperor lowered taxes and built storage places that he used to stop famine and control the market. Later Wen's son would kill him for the throne and call himself Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang brought back the Confucian scholars and the government, which made the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders very angry. Yang became a leader who used too many resources for his own luxury and tried many times to conquer Goguryeo. His military failures and neglect of the empire made his own ministers kill him in 618, ending the Sui dynasty.

Tang dynasty

Luckily, one of Yang's most respected advisors, Li Yuan, was able to take the throne quickly, stopping a messy collapse. He called himself Emperor Gaozu, and created the Tang dynasty in 623. The Tang saw China grow through taking over Tibet in the west, Vietnam in the south, and Manchuria in the north. Tang emperors also improved education for scholars in the Chinese government. A Ministry of Rites was created and the exam system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs. In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different groups between the common people and the elite, the Pure Land and Zen groups, respectively. Supporting the spread of Buddhism was Empress Wu, who also claimed an unofficial "Zhou dynasty" and showed China's acceptance of a woman leader, which was rare at the time. However, Buddhism would also face some opposition, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This usually involved complaints about how it cost the state money, since the government could not tax Buddhist monasteries, and also gave many gifts and grants to them.

The Tang dynasty began to weaken under the rule of Emperor Xuanzong, who started to ignore the economy and military and caused trouble among the court officials because of the too much influence of his concubine, Yang Guifei, and her family. This finally caused a revolt in 755. Although the revolt failed, stopping it required help from the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and giving more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a weak state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 and various groups led by the mentioned nomadic tribes and local leaders would fight for control of China in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire was the largest land empire in history. Started by Genghis Khan in 1206 after uniting separate Mongol tribes, it quickly grew across Asia and into Europe. The Mongol attacks became known for both their military skill and large-scale destruction. The time of Pax Mongolica helped trade, cultural sharing, and communication throughout Eurasia.

Japan

Japan's medieval history began with the Asuka period, from around 600 to 710. This time was marked by the Taika Reform and imperial centralization, both of which were a direct result of growing contact and influences from China. In 603, Prince Shōtoku of the Yamato dynasty began big political and cultural changes. He created the Seventeen-article constitution in 604, centralizing power towards the emperor (under the title tenno, or heavenly sovereign) and taking away the power to collect taxes from local lords. Shōtoku was also a supporter of Buddhism and he encouraged building temples in competition.

Shōtoku's reforms led Japan into the Nara period (around 710 to around 794), with the moving of the Japanese capital to Nara in Honshu. This period saw the full use of Chinese-style writing, manners, and architecture in Japan along with Confucian ideas to add to the already present Buddhism. Peasants respected both Confucian scholars and Buddhist monks. However, after the 735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic, Buddhism became the state religion and the government ordered the building of many Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues. The big spending combined with the fact that many aristocrats did not pay taxes, put a heavy load on the peasants that caused poverty and hunger. Eventually the Buddhist position got out of control, threatening to take imperial power and causing Emperor Kanmu to move the capital to Heian-kyō to avoid a Buddhist takeover. This marked the start of the Heian period and the end of Taika reform.

With the Heian period (from 794 to 1185) came a decline of imperial power. Chinese influence also declined, because of its link to imperial centralization and the heavenly mandate, which came to be seen as ineffective. By 838, the Japanese court stopped sending groups to China; only traders and Buddhist monks kept traveling to China. Buddhism itself came to be seen as more Japanese than Chinese, and continued to be popular in Japan. Buddhist monks and monasteries kept trying to gather personal power in courts, along with aristocrats. One particular noble family that dominated influence in the imperial government was the Fujiwara clan. During this time cultural life in the imperial court grew. There was a focus on beauty and social interaction and writing and literature was seen as fancy. Women of the nobility were educated the same as men, taking part in creative works and politics. A prime example of both Japanese literature and women's role in high-class culture at this time was The Tale of Genji, written by the lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu. The popularity of wooden palaces and shōji sliding doors among the nobility also happened.

The loss of imperial power also led to the rise of local warrior leaders. Small lords began to act independently. They managed laws, oversaw public work projects, and collected money for themselves instead of the imperial court. Regional lords also began to build their own armies. These warriors were loyal only to their local lords and not the emperor, although the imperial government increasingly called them in to protect the capital. The regional warrior class developed into the samurai, which created its own culture: including special weapons such as the katana and a form of honor, bushido. The imperial government's loss of control in the second half of the Heian period allowed banditry to grow, requiring both feudal lords and Buddhist monasteries to get warriors for protection. As imperial control over Japan weakened, feudal lords also became more independent and broke away from the empire. These feudal states treated the peasants living in them very badly, reducing the farmers to an almost serfdom status. Peasants were also strictly stopped from rising to the samurai class, being separated by dress and weapon rules. Because of their unfair treatment, many peasants turned to Buddhism as a hope for reward in the afterlife for good behavior.

With the growth of feudalism, families in the imperial court began to rely on agreements with regional lords. The Fujiwara clan lost power, replaced by a fight between the Taira clan and the Minamoto clan. This fight grew into the Genpei War in the early 1180s. This war saw the use of both samurai and peasant soldiers. For the samurai, battle was ceremonial and they often easily defeated the poorly trained peasants. The Minamoto clan succeeded because of their rural agreements. Once the Taira was destroyed, the Minamoto established a military government called the shogunate (or bakufu), centered in Kamakura.

The end of the Genpei War and the creation of the Kamakura shogunate marked the end of the Heian period and the start of the Kamakura period in 1185, solidifying feudal Japan.

Korea

Three Kingdoms of Korea

The three Kingdoms of Korea includes Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast Korean peninsula. These three kingdoms acted as a bridge of cultures between China and Japan. Prince Shōtoku of Japan had been taught by two teachers. One was from Baekje, the other was from Goguryeo. Once Japan attacked Silla, Goguryeo helped Silla to defeat Japan. Baekje had its earliest high point during the 5th century AD. Its capital was Seoul. During its high point, the kingdom made colonies overseas. Liaodong, China and Kyushu, Japan were the colonies of Baekje during its short high point. Goguryeo was the strongest kingdom of all. They sometimes called themselves an Empire. Its high point was the 6th century. King Gwanggaeto made its land bigger to the north. So Goguryeo controlled from the Korean peninsula to Manchuria. And his son, King Jangsu made its land bigger to the south. He took Seoul, and moved its capital to Pyeongyang. Goguryeo almost took three quarters of South Korean peninsula thanks to king Jangsu who made the kingdom's land bigger to the south. Silla had its latest high point. King Jinheung went north and took Seoul. But it was short. Baekje became stronger and attacked Silla. Baekje took more than 40 cities of Silla. So Silla could hardly survive. China's Sui dynasty attacked Goguryeo and Goguryeo–Sui War happened between Korea and China. Goguryeo beat China and the Sui dynasty fell. After that, the Tang dynasty attacked Goguryeo again and helped Silla to unify the peninsula. Goguryeo, Baekje, and Japan helped each other against Tang-Silla alliance, but Baekje and Goguryeo fell. Tang dynasty betrayed Silla and attacked the Korean peninsula to take the whole Korean peninsula (Silla-Tang war). Silla said 'Unification of Three Korea', so people of fallen Baekje and Goguryeo helped Silla against Chinese attack. Finally Silla could beat China and unified the peninsula. This war helped Korean people to unite mentally.

North-South States Period

The rest of Goguryeo people created Balhae and won the war against Tang in the later 7th century AD. Balhae was the north state, and Later Silla was the south state. Balhae was a very strong kingdom like their ancestor Goguryeo. Finally, the Emperor of Tang dynasty admitted Balhae as 'A strong country in the East'. They liked to trade with Japan, China, and Silla. Balhae and Later Silla sent many international students to China. And Arab merchants came into the Korean peninsula, so Korea became known as 'Silla' in the western countries. Silla improved Korean writing system called Idu letters. Idu affected Katakana of Japan. Liao dynasty attacked Balhae in early 10th century, so Balhae fell.

Later Three Kingdoms of Korea

The unified Korean kingdom, Later Silla divided into three kingdoms again because of the corrupt central government. It includes Later Goguryeo (also known as "Taebong"), Later Baekje, and Later Silla. The general of Later Goguryeo, Wang Geon took the throne and changed the name of kingdom into Goryeo, which was taken from the ancient strong kingdom, Goguryeo, and Goryeo reunited the peninsula.

Goryeo

Goryeo reunited the Korean peninsula during the later three kingdoms period and named itself 'Empire'. But today, Goryeo is known as a kingdom. The name 'Goryeo' came from Goguryeo, and the name Korea came from Goryeo. Goryeo took in people from fallen Balhae. They also made their land bigger to the north by defending Liao dynasty and attacking the Jurchen people. Goryeo created a very beautiful culture. The first metal type printed book Jikji was also from Korea. The Goryeo ware is one of the most famous things left from this kingdom. Goryeo took Chinese government system and made it their own.

During this time, laws were written down and a civil service system was started. Buddhism grew and spread all over the peninsula. The Tripitaka Koreana is 81,258 books in total. It was made to keep Korea safe against the Mongolian invasion. It is now a UNESCO world heritage. Goryeo won the battle against Liao dynasty. Then, the Mongol Empire invaded Goryeo. Goryeo did not disappear but it had to follow Mongol rules. After 80 years, in the 14th century, the Mongolian dynasty Yuan lost power, King Gongmin tried to free themselves against Mongols although his wife was also Mongolian. In the 14th century, Ming dynasty wanted Goryeo to follow China. But Goryeo didn't. They decided to attack China. Going to China, the general of Goryeo, Lee Sung-Gae came back and destroyed Goryeo. Then, in 1392, he created new dynasty, Joseon. And he became Taejo of Joseon, which means the first king of Joseon.

Southeast Asia

Khmers

In 802, Jayavarman II consolidated his rule over neighboring peoples and called himself chakravartin, or "universal ruler". The Khmer Empire controlled all of mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time they created a very sophisticated monumental architecture of great beauty and skill at Angkor.

Vietnam

The history of Vietnam goes back to around 20,000 years ago, when the first modern humans arrived and settled on this land, known as the Hoabinhians, which can be linked to the modern-day Negritos. Archaeological finds from 1965, which are still being studied, show the remains of two humans closely related to the Sinanthropus, dating back to the Middle Pleistocene era, roughly half a million years ago.

Pre-historic Vietnam was home to some of the world's earliest civilizations and societies—making them one of the world's first people who had farming. The Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic area, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the Red River Delta. The need to have one leader to stop floods of the Red River, to work together on water systems, trade, and to fight invaders, led to the creation of the first legendary Vietnamese states around 2879 BC. While in later times, ongoing research from archaeologists have suggested that the Vietnamese Đông Sơn culture were found in Northern Vietnam, Guangxi and Laos around 700 BC.

Vietnam's long coast and narrow lands, rough mountainous areas, with two big deltas, soon became home to several different ancient cultures and civilizations. In the north, the Đông Sơn culture and its local chiefdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc started to grow by 500 BC. In Central, Sa Huỳnh culture of Austronesian Chamic peoples also grew. Both were taken over by the Chinese Han dynasty expansion from the north - the Han conquest of Nanyue brought parts of Vietnam under Chinese rule in 111 BC. Traditional Chinese became the official writing system as well as the later created independent Nôm script of Vietnamese.

In 40 AD, the Trưng Sisters led the first uprising of local tribes and people against Chinese control. The rebellion was however defeated, but as the Han dynasty began to weaken by the late 2nd century and China started to fall into trouble, the local people of Vietnam rose again and some became free. In 192 AD, the Chams of Central Vietnam rebelled against the Chinese and later became independent Kingdom of Champa, while the Red River Delta saw less control from the north. At that time, with the coming of Buddhism and Hinduism by the second century AD, Vietnam was the first place in Southeast Asia which shared influences of both Indian and Chinese cultures, and the rise of first Indianized kingdoms Champa and Funan.

During these 1,000 years there were many uprisings against Chinese control, and at certain times Vietnam was ruled by the Trưng Sisters, Early Lý, Khúc and Dương Đình Nghệ—although their wins and rules were short.

When Ngô Quyền (Emperor of Vietnam, 938–944) took back the country's power with the win at Battle of Bạch Đằng (938), the next thousand years was advanced by the success of local dynasties: Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần, Hồ, Later Trần, Later Lê, Mạc, Revival Lê, Tây Sơn and Nguyễn. Nôm script (Chữ Nôm) of the Vietnamese started to grow and become more advanced, with books and writing being done in Nôm. At different times during the royal dynasties, Vietnam was damaged and split by civil wars and saw attacks by the Song, Yuan, Cham, Ming, Siamese, Qing, French, and Empire of Japan.

The Ming Empire took over the Red River valley for a while before native Vietnamese took control back and the French Empire made Vietnam a French area for almost a hundred years, followed by a short but harsh occupation by the Japanese Empire. During the French time, very bad treatment, unfairness and remains of Hán-Nôm were being destroyed, with the French wanting to take away the Vietnamese Confucian tradition from the 1880s. French was the official language during this time. The Vietnamese Latin script, seen as a Latin version of Hán-Nôm, took the place of the Hán-Nôm writing systems and became the main way of writing and speaking since the 20th century.

Japan invaded in 1940, creating strong anger that helped fight against post-World War II military-political efforts by France, and the United States who had seen themselves as fighters for freedom and democracy against the red waves of communism. In the Vietnam War, the United States or the Western Bloc supported South Vietnam and the Soviet Union or the Eastern Bloc supported North Vietnam. Political trouble, a time of heavy fighting and war, followed by Communist fighting and winning finally ended the monarchy after World War II, and the country was called a Socialist Republic. Vietnam faced big problems as well as political and economic separation after hard wars with China and Cambodia in the years after. Following that time, the Đổi Mới (renovation/innovation) changes were started. The forces of market opening and world connection has shaped Vietnam's economic and political life since.

Early modern

Further information: Early modern period

The Russian Empire began to grow into Asia from the 1600s, eventually controlling all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the late 1800s. The Ottoman Empire ruled parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa from the 1500s onward. In the 1600s, new leaders in China started the Qing dynasty. Also in the 1500s, rulers in India built a large empire and made it a time of great culture and wealth. For much of this time, China had the world’s biggest economy, followed by India, until the 1700s.

Ming China

By 1368, a leader named Zhu Yuanzhang became the Hongwu Emperor and started the Ming dynasty in China. He and his supporters pushed out foreign rulers and made changes to improve exams for government jobs. The emperor cared about ordinary people and built systems to help farmers, but over time, richer landowners took more power.

People in Ming China enjoyed art, with better painting techniques and new stories. The Chinese also grew new crops from America, like maize and sweet potatoes, which helped feed more people. Trade grew, with Chinese goods like silk and tea being sold around the world.

Foreign interests

To show off their strength, China sent big ships on voyages led by Zheng He between 1403 and 1433. These trips visited places like Southeast Asia and Africa. But later, China stopped these voyages and focused on defense instead.

Western visitors, mostly teachers called Jesuit missionaries, arrived in China in 1582. They brought new ideas and inventions, like better clocks and calendars, which interested some Chinese leaders.

Decline

Problems grew near the end of the Ming dynasty. Poor leadership and greedy officials caused trouble. Floods, droughts, and hunger struck the countryside. Some farmers had to make very hard choices to survive.

Pirates from Japan and China attacked the coast, and northern powers became a threat. In 1644, a new group from the north took over China and started the Qing dynasty.

Korea: Joseon dynasty (1392–1897)

Main article: Joseon

Korea’s older kingdom, Goryeo, fell in 1392, and the Joseon dynasty began. New leaders made improvements in writing, science, and laws. In 1592, Japan invaded Korea, but Korean General Yi Sun-sin helped defend the country with support from China.

Later, nearby powers invaded Korea, causing changes in leadership. Korean leaders tried to improve life for people and learn from other countries. By the 1800s, Japan became stronger and took more interest in Korea.

Japan: Tokugawa or Edo period (1603–1867)

Main article: Edo period

After years of conflict, Japan’s leaders brought back peace under Tokugawa Ieyasu, who became the top leader in 1603. Japanese society was organized into strict groups, with leaders and warriors at the top and farmers, artisans, and merchants below. Japan kept most foreigners out to stay independent.

India

Main articles: Mughal Empire and Maratha Confederacy

In the early 1700s, the Mughal Empire ruled much of India. Leaders built wonderful buildings and encouraged arts and culture. But after a series of events in the mid-1700s, British power grew, leading to colonial rule over much of India.

British and Dutch colonization

Main articles: Dutch East India Company and East India Company

European countries like Britain and the Netherlands arrived in Asia to trade. They gradually took control of many areas. The British set up a company to manage trade and rule parts of India, while the Dutch did the same in other places. Only Thailand avoided being ruled by a foreign power, though it still felt the effects of European influence.

Late modern

Further information: Modern history § Late modern period

Central Asia: The Great Game, Russia vs Great Britain

The Great Game was a big contest between Great Britain and Russia about Central and South Asia. It lasted from 1828 to 1907. There was no actual fighting, but both sides were very worried about each other. Britain wanted to protect its important land, India, from Russia. Russia was worried Britain might try to move into Central Asia. This made both sides very careful and sometimes tense. Britain focused on keeping all paths to India safe. The Great Game started when Britain tried to control the Emirate of Afghanistan. They also used places like the Ottoman Empire, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara to keep a buffer between the two big powers. This helped protect India and important trade routes. Some big events happened, like the First Anglo-Afghan War and the First Anglo-Sikh War. The book Kim by Rudyard Kipling helped make everyone talk more about this contest.

Qing China

Main article: Qing dynasty

In 1644, the Manchu people took over from the Ming dynasty and started the Qing dynasty. The new leaders kept many old ways, like the government system and important ideas from the past. But new things happened too, like more trade with other countries. This brought in lots of silver in exchange for tea, porcelain, and silk. New merchants grew powerful during this time. The government also tried to fix old canals, roads, and water systems to help people. But rich landowners started to treat poor farmers badly. By the late 1700s, problems grew in Qing China. The system for choosing leaders got corrupted, and many leaders didn’t care well for the people or the army. Poverty and crime increased, and many people moved to find work. The government didn’t want to change things to fix these problems.

Opium Wars

Main articles: First Opium War and Second Opium War

China felt it was losing its power because of trade with Western countries. European traders wanted Chinese goods like tea and porcelain, but China didn’t want what Europeans offered. To balance trade, British traders started selling a harmful plant to China. This caused many people to suffer and lose money. China tried to stop this, but it was hard. In 1839, a leader named Lin Zexu destroyed a lot of this plant. Britain then declared war, starting the First Opium War. China’s old ships couldn’t fight Britain’s new weapons. The war ended with a treaty that gave Britain control of Hong Kong and opened China to more trade with other countries.

Manchuria

Further information: Northeast China and History of Manchuria

Manchuria became important to Russia when they built a railroad through it. Later, Japan took control after winning a war against Russia in 1904–1905. During a troubled time in China, a leader named Zhang Zuolin ruled the area but was killed by Japan. After World War II, the Soviet Union moved into the area. It later became a base for leaders working to change China.

Joseon

In the 1800s, the king of Joseon had little power because the king’s family members controlled the country. The father of the young king, Heungseon Daewongun, wanted to give the king back his power. He removed some powerful families and groups, which helped the royal family regain control. But he also spent a lot of money rebuilding a palace, which caused problems for the people. Eventually, his son, King Gojong, took full control.

Korean Empire

By a treaty ending a war between China and Japan, China recognized Korea as an independent country. The 26th king of Joseon, Gojong, changed the country’s name to the Korean Empire and made himself emperor. The new empire tried to use more technology from other countries and build up its military. But during a war between Japan and Russia, Japan ignored Korea’s wish to stay neutral. Japan won and took control over Korea. Japan also took away Korea’s ability to talk to other countries. Emperor Gojong tried to tell the world about Japan’s actions, but it didn’t work. In 1910, Korea became part of the Japanese Empire.

Contemporary

Further information: Contemporary history

By the early 1900s, European powers controlled many parts of Asia, including British India, French Indochina, Spanish East Indies, and Portuguese Macau and Goa. During this time, the Empire of Japan grew and took over parts of China and Southeast Asia during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. After the war, many Asian countries gained independence from European rule. During the Cold War, some parts of Asia were led by communist governments, while others formed alliances with western countries. Conflicts like the Korean War and Vietnam War happened between different groups.

China

Main articles: History of the Republic of China and History of the People's Republic of China

Before World War II, China had a struggle between two groups. When Japan invaded, they had to work together to defend their country. After the war, the communist group took control and formed the People's Republic of China with Mao Zedong as its leader. Today, China is an important country in the world for both money and politics.

South Asia

See also: South Asia § Contemporary era

From the 1700s to the 1800s, much of India was taken over by a group acting for the British government. Later, people in India wanted independence, led by Mahatma Gandhi. In 1947, British India was split into two countries, India and Pakistan. This caused big changes and many people moved to either country. In 1971, Bangladesh became its own country after a struggle.

Korea

During the Korean War, Korea split into two parts: North and South. Over time, South Korea grew stronger in money and became a democracy, while North Korea stayed under strong leaders. South Korea faced some difficult times with leaders who wanted too much power, but eventually, the country became a democracy in 1987.