History of North Africa

The history of North Africa is a rich story divided into several important periods: prehistory, the classical period, the spread of Islam, the colonial era, and the time after independence when today’s nations formed. This area has been shaped by many different cultures over thousands of years.

Because of its location, North Africa became very connected to the rest of the world. The development of sea travel helped tie it closely to the Mediterranean region, especially during the classical period. Later, the Sahara desert turned into a busy trade route. Camel caravans carried goods and people from sub-Saharan Africa across the desert.

North Africa also has a small but important land link to the Middle East. This connection has had a big effect on the region’s history, helping ideas, cultures, and trade flow between these two areas for many centuries.

Geography

Further information: Geography of Africa

North Africa is a narrow strip of land between the Sahara desert and the Mediterranean Sea. It stretches from the Moroccan Atlantic coast all the way to Egypt. The countries usually included are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. South of the desert lies a semi-arid area called the Sahel. This area is a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian Savanna, which is a grassy landscape that stretches across the African continent.

Climate

Further information: Climate of Africa

Long ago, around 15,000 years ago, big changes in weather began in Africa. The West African Monsoon brought more rain during the summer, turning parts of North Africa into a greener place with lakes, wetlands, grasslands, and shrublands. This time, called the Green Sahara, lasted until about 5,500 to 4,000 years ago when the climate began to change again.

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistoric North Africa, Northeast Africa, History of Africa, and Sahara pump theory

Further information: Prehistoric Egypt, History of ancient Egypt, and Nubia

The earliest humans lived in North Africa around 260,000 BC. During the Stone Age, the climate was very different, with the Sahara being much wetter and more like a savanna. This area had many large mammals and supported a large hunter-gatherer population. The Aterian culture was one of the most advanced paleolithic societies.

In the Mesolithic period, the Capsian culture was common in central North Africa, and Neolithic farmers became important by 6000 BC. Over time, the Sahara became drier, creating a barrier between North Africa and the rest of Africa.

In 10,000 BC, people began creating engraved and painted rock art in the Central Sahara. This art spanned several periods including the Bubaline Period, Kel Essuf Period, Round Head Period, Pastoral Period, Caballine Period, and Cameline Period.

The Nile Valley is one of the richest agricultural areas in the world. As the Sahara dried up, more people lived in the Nile Valley, and large cities developed. Eventually, ancient Egypt became one of the world's first civilizations.

Bronze and Iron Age

Further information: Prehistoric North Africa § Bronze Age, and Prehistoric North Africa § Iron Age

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

  Bronze Age   Iron Age

Classical period

Main article: North Africa during classical antiquity

See also: Ptolemaic Kingdom and Roman Egypt

The Libyan Desert separated Egypt from the rest of North Africa. Egyptian boats were good for the Nile River but not for the open Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian traders preferred places like Crete, Cyprus, and the Levant.

Greeks from Europe and the Phoenicians from Asia settled along the coast of North Africa. They made their living from the sea and trade. They did not trade much with local people, so they created new cities, a process called colonization. The Greeks mostly traded in the Aegean, Adriatic, Black, and Red Seas and built major cities in Cyrenaica, close to Greece. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, and for the next three centuries, it was ruled by the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty.

The Phoenicians set up many colonies in North Africa, from Tripoli to the Atlantic coast. One of their most important cities was Carthage, which became a powerful nation. At its peak, Carthage controlled much of the Western Mediterranean and most of North Africa except Egypt. But Rome, a strong rival, defeated Carthage in a series of wars called the Punic Wars. This led to Carthage’s destruction in 146 BC and its lands becoming part of the Roman Empire. In 30 BC, the Roman Emperor Octavian took over Egypt, bringing the entire North African coast under one ruler for the first time.

The power of Carthage reached deep into the Sahara Desert, keeping the nomadic tribes peaceful. The Roman Empire stayed closer to the coast but took Berber land for Roman farmers. To protect against attacks from the south, they built a network of forts and walls. Eventually, this made the area safe enough for small local garrisons to manage without help from the whole empire.

When the Roman Empire began to weaken, North Africa was largely undisturbed until the Vandal invasion in 429 AD. The Vandals ruled North Africa until the Eastern Empire, led by Justinian, took it back in the 6th century. Egypt was not attacked by the Vandals because a large desert separated it, and the Eastern Roman Empire had stronger defenses.

During the time of Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Carthaginian, and Ottoman rule, the Kabyle people kept their independence. Even after the Arab conquest of North Africa, the Kabyle people kept control of their mountain homes.

Arrival of Islam

See also: Egypt in the Middle Ages, Medieval Muslim Algeria, Berbers and Islam, and Islam in Africa

Arab Conquest

Main article: Muslim conquest of the Maghreb

See also: Arab–Byzantine wars and Battle of Carthage (698)

In the 7th century CE, the start of Islam helped unite Arab tribes by giving them a shared faith. This stopped their old fights over religion. The new leaders of Islam, centered in Medina, won many battles against other powers. They spread Islam because they wanted others to join, but they allowed people to keep their own faiths if they believed in one god.

The Muslim armies moved into Egypt and took control by 642 CE. Later, they moved west into areas that are now Libya and Tunisia. They faced some local leaders but kept expanding. Over the next years, they continued to move through North Africa, meeting new leaders and places, and slowly bringing more areas into their growing world.

Kharijite Berber Rebellion

Main articles: Berber Revolt and Kharijites

Abbasid rule and local dynasties

The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Caliphate after the Abbasid Revolution. The Abbasids controlled Egypt and parts of North Africa, but areas further west were ruled by local Berber tribes or other dynasties.

The Fatimid Caliphate began when Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i and the Kutama Berbers took control from the Aghlabids. In 909, Abdallah al-Mahdi became the first Fatimid Caliph in Ifriqiya. The Fatimids later expanded their influence to Egypt, parts of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hijaz. In 969, they conquered Egypt and moved their court to Cairo in 973. The Fatimid Caliphate declined and was finally ended by Salah ad-Din in 1171, who replaced it with the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt.

Main article: Rustamid dynasty

Main article: Midrarid dynasty

Main article: Idrisid dynasty

Main article: Aghlabids

Main articles: Tulunids and Ikhshidid dynasty

Main article: Fatimid Caliphate

Muslim Berber Empires

Zirids

Main article: Zirid dynasty

The Zirid Dynasty was a family of Sanhaja Berbers from the Kabyle mountains. They began by ruling eastern and central Maghreb under the Fatimids but faced resistance from local Zenata groups and the Umayyads of Cordoba. Later, they broke away from Fatimid control.

Hammadids

Main article: Hammadid dynasty

The Hammadids declared independence from the Zirids in 1015. They conquered large areas of the Maghreb, including cities like Algiers, Bougie, and Tripoli.

Almoravids

Main article: Almoravid dynasty

In the 1100s, Berbers from the Sahara started a movement to change how Islam was practiced in North Africa. They created an empire that stretched into parts of Spain and Morocco.

Almohads

Main article: Almohad Caliphate

The Almohads were another group from the western Maghreb who started in the 1200s. They took over North Africa and parts of Spain after the leader Ibn Tumart's death.

Marinids

Main article: Marinid Sultanate

Hafsids

Main article: Hafsid dynasty

The Hafsids ruled Tunisia from 1229 to 1574. They made Tunis an important city and traded with Europe, though they also faced attacks from other powers.

Zayyanids

Main article: Kingdom of Tlemcen

Wattasids

Main article: Wattasid dynasty

Ottoman rule

See also: Ottoman Algeria, Ottoman Tunisia, Ottoman Tripolitania, and Ottoman Egypt

After the Middle Ages, Northern Africa was mostly controlled by the Ottoman Empire, except for the Kabyle people and the area ruled by the Saadi Sultanate. The main cities under Ottoman rule were Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.

European colonial period

Further information: European enclaves in North Africa before 1830

During the 1700s and 1800s, North Africa was taken over by France, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Italy. In the 1950s, 1960s, and into the 1970s, all the countries in North Africa became independent from these European rulers, except for a few small areas that stayed under Spanish control and later became part of Morocco.

The Suez Canal in Egypt, built in 1869, has been a source of debate. In 1888, an agreement said the canal would be a neutral zone protected by the British. In 1936, the United Kingdom kept control of the canal, but Egypt disagreed with this in 1951. By 1954, Britain agreed to leave. When the United Kingdom and the United States did not support building the Aswan Dam, Egypt took control of the canal. This led to a short war involving Britain, France, and Israel. The canal was closed for repairs until April 1957, with help from the UN. A United Nations force was set up to keep the canal and the Sinai Peninsula peaceful.

Europe and the Maghreb

In the 1960s, the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union, began working closely with the Maghreb countries. Morocco and Tunisia were invited to join an agreement with the EEC, which helped shape the growth of these nations through trade with Europe. Over time, trade between Europe and the Maghreb grew, leading to the Global Mediterranean Policy in 1972, which lasted until 1992. However, this policy did not bring much financial benefit to either side.

As the EEC grew, it started placing stricter rules on trade with the Maghreb due to security issues. Europe also faced its own challenges, such as the fall of the Berlin wall, which shifted their focus away from the Maghreb. Additionally, the Maghreb countries dealt with their own problems, including turmoil from the 2nd Gulf War in 1991. Even though trade still happens today, the Global Mediterranean Policy was seen as a disappointment overall.

Post-colonial period

Further information: Decolonisation of Africa, Postcolonial Africa § North Africa, and Neocolonialism

See also: Status of forces agreement

During World War II, the area saw battles in the North African Campaign. In the 1950s and 1960s, the countries of North Africa became independent. Today, there is a disagreement over Western Sahara between Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario Front.

The Arab Spring started with uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, leading to changes in their governments, and also caused a civil war in Libya. There were also protests in Algeria and Morocco. Many people were hurt during these events.

History of North African Architecture

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

• Prehistoric North African Architecture
• Ancient North African Architecture
• Medieval North African Architecture

History of science and technology in North Africa

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

The history of science and technology in North Africa is a long and rich story. Over many centuries, people in this region made important discoveries and created new tools and ideas. They shared knowledge with others through trade and travel, helping to build up the world's understanding of many subjects.

North Africa has been a meeting place for many different cultures. As people from various backgrounds lived and worked together, they exchanged ideas and skills. This mixing of cultures helped lead to many advances in science, technology, and everyday life.

Military history of Northern Africa

Main article: Military history of Africa § Military history of Northern Africa

The military history of Northern Africa is a long and interesting story. Over many years, many different groups and nations have fought for control of this area. Important battles and wars have shaped the region, and many cultures have left their mark on its history. The ability to travel by sea helped connect Northern Africa to the rest of the Mediterranean world, especially during important times in history.

Genetic history of North Africa

Main article: Genetic history of North Africa

Further information: Genetic history of Africa § North Africa, DNA history of Egypt, and Genetic studies on Moroccans

Studies show that big movements of people, especially from the Arabian Peninsula, changed the genetic makeup of North Africa a lot. These changes happened mostly around the first thousand years after Christ. Earlier groups, like farmers from Western Asia and Southern Europe, also added to the mix of genes in the area.

Scientists have found clues in DNA that show how people moved and mixed over thousands of years. For example, some genes common in North Africa today came from people who lived long ago in places like the Horn of Africa. These movements helped shape the genetic history of the region.

List of archaeological cultures and sites

This section lists important old places and cultures from early times in North Africa. These sites help us learn about the people who lived there long ago.