Pluto (mythology)

In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Pluto (Ancient Greek: Πλούτων, romanized: Ploútōn) was the ruler of the underworld. He was known as the god who watched over the afterlife. Earlier, he was called Hades, but the name Pluto came to be used more often for the god himself, especially in stories and religious practices.

1st century sculpture of Pluto in the Getty Villa

Pluto was sometimes thought to be close to Ploûtos, the god of wealth, because valuable minerals come from deep in the earth. As a god of the deep earth, Pluto helped crops grow. In many stories, Pluto is married to Persephone, and together they care for the souls of those who have passed away.

In myths, Pluto, Hades, Zeus, and Poseidon shared the world between them. Zeus ruled the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Pluto the underworld. One of the most famous stories about Pluto is how he brought Persephone to the underworld to be his wife. The name Pluto became well-known through Greek writers and later became the common name in Roman stories and art as well.

Hesiod

In the stories told by the ancient writer Hesiod, Pluto is not mentioned. Instead, one of the rulers of the underworld is named Hades. Hades took a girl named Persephone from her mother Demeter. But Pluto is linked to wealth and growing things because of a character named Plutus, who is Demeter’s child. Over time, the ideas about Hades and Pluto mixed together, showing Pluto as both the ruler of the underworld and a god who helps plants grow.

Hesiod also wrote about asking Zeus and Demeter for good harvests when people are preparing their fields for planting.

Plouton and Ploutos

Ploutos with the horn of abundance, in the company of Dionysos (4th century BC)

Plouton was another name used for Hades, the god of the underworld. People liked this name better because it meant "giver of wealth" and did not sound as scary as Hades. This name reminded them of the richness of the earth, like crops growing and treasures hidden in mines.

Over time, Plouton came to represent the positive side of the underworld god, showing him as a bringer of abundance. Artists often pictured him with a horn of plenty, called a cornucopia, to show this side of him. The Romans also had their own ways of thinking about Plouton, sometimes linking him to their gods of wealth and the earth.

Mythology

Mysteries and cult

As Pluto became more important as a symbol of agricultural wealth in the Eleusinian Mysteries starting from the 5th century BC, the name Hades was used more for the underworld itself. Neither Hades nor Pluto was one of the traditional Twelve Olympians, and Hades seems to have had only limited worship, perhaps only at Elis.

During the time of Plato, the people of Athens sometimes honored the god called Plouton with a special ceremony called the "strewing of a couch" (tên klinên strôsai). At Eleusis, Plouton had his own priestess. Pluto was worshipped together with Persephone as a divine couple at several places including Knidos, Ephesos, Mytilene, and Sparta, as well as at Eleusis, where they were known simply as God (Theos) and Goddess (Thea).

Hydria (ca. 340 BC) depicting figures from the Eleusinian Mysteries

In the ritual texts of the mystery religions preserved by the so-called Orphic or Bacchic gold tablets, the name Hades appears more often than Plouton, but it refers to the underground place. Plouton is the ruler who presides over it together with Persephone. By the end of the 4th century BC, the name Plouton appears in Greek inscriptions. Some inscriptions greet Pluto and Persephone together, showing them as welcoming figures.

The Orphic Hymn to Pluto calls the god "strong-spirited" and the "All-Receiver." In the hymn, Pluto's home is in Tartarus, described as a "meadow" and "thick-shaded and dark," where the Acheron surrounds "the roots of the earth." Hades is the name of the place, described as "windless," and its gates are located in an Attic cave within the district of Eleusis. The hymn asks Pluto to come with favor and joy to the initiates.

The names of both Hades and Pluto appear in ancient Greek Magical Papyri and curse tablets, with Hades usually referring to the underworld as a place, and Pluto called upon as the partner of Persephone. Some curse tablets from Rome promise offerings to Persephone and Pluto if the curse is fulfilled. These offerings include dates, figs, and a black pig. The pig was a special animal sacrifice for underworld gods, and the animals used were usually black or dark in color.

A sanctuary dedicated to Pluto was called a ploutonion. The complex at Eleusis had a ploutonion that was thought to be the birthplace of the divine child Ploutos. Greek inscriptions mention an altar of Pluto at Eleusis that was to be "plastered" for new sacrifices. One known ploutonion was in the sacred grove between Tralleis and Nysa, where a temple of Pluto and Persephone stood. Visitors went there seeking healing and dream oracles. The ploutonion at Hierapolis, Phrygia, was linked to the rites of Cybele, but later became part of the cult of Apollo. These sites were often chosen because natural mephitic vapors were thought to show an opening to the underworld. In Italy, Avernus was considered an entrance to the underworld because of its toxic vapors.

Iconography and attributes

Hades and Persephone: tondo of an Attic red-figured kylix, ca. 440–430 BC

Ancient stories describe Pluto, the ruler of the underworld, with special symbols and tools that show his role. In paintings from long ago, Pluto is shown as a grown-up man, sometimes with white hair. He often carries a scepter or a cornucopia, which is a horn that can give food. Unlike Hades, another name for the underworld ruler, Pluto is usually fully clothed and stands next to goddesses like Demeter and Kore.

Pluto is also known for carrying keys, a symbol of his power over the underworld. These keys appear in old poems and stories, showing his role in guarding the world of the dead. The color and plants around Pluto also have meaning. He is sometimes shown with dark colors but can also appear pale. Plants like glaciolus and cypress are linked to him, representing both life and death in the stories.

In Greek literature and philosophy

Persephone and Pluto or Hades on a pinax from Locri

The name Plouton refers to the ruler of the underworld and was first used by ancient Greek writers. In a funny play called The Frogs by the writer Aristophanes, the ruler of the underworld, named Plouton, appears as a character. The play shows the god Dionysus traveling to the underworld to bring back a great writer to help improve theater in Athens.

The writer Plato thought of Plouton as a kind spirit who helps people after they pass away. Plato believed Plouton gave gifts from the earth and was very important to worship.

Theogonies and cosmology

Euhemerism and Latinization

Serapis with moon and sun on oil lamp

In ancient stories, gods were seen as important leaders whose tales were told by people over time. A writer named Ennius translated these stories into Latin, and later, a Christian writer named Lactantius wrote about them. In these stories, Saturn, the Roman version of the god Cronus, married a goddess named Ops. They had several children, including Jupiter (the Roman Zeus), Juno (the Roman Hera), Neptune, and Pluto. Each child had a special role. For example, Pluto was hidden away when he was born, which gave him an important place in the stories.

Orphic and philosophical systems

Different groups told the stories of Pluto in their own ways. Some believed that when the world began, everything came together and formed an "egg." From this egg came a god named Phanes, and the heavier parts became the world below, which they called Pluto. Others thought Pluto was a place where souls were prepared before moving on. These ideas helped people understand the world and their place in it.

Helios Apollon	Plouton Helios
One	Many
clarity	invisibility
bright	dark
memory	oblivion

In Western art and literature

Christianization

Christian writers in the early years after Jesus sought to show that older gods were not real. They often said these gods were just people from stories. The gods of the underworld, though, were still seen as powerful. They were linked to the Devil and called evil forces by Christian teachers.

One reason Christians disliked these gods was because of the games where people dressed up as gods. In these games, a person dressed as Pluto would help carry away dead bodies. A writer named Tertullian called a figure named Charun, who looked like the god Pluto, the "brother of Jove." Another writer, Prudentius, described the games as a place where people made cruel promises to Pluto, and that fallen fighters were like sacrifices to the god Dis, with their souls given to Charon as payment.

Medieval mythography

During the Middle Ages, stories about gods were written in Latin and mixed up Greek and Roman gods. Because the name Pluto was used in both, it was often used for the ruler of the underworld. This ruler was also linked to the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer in Christian stories. The underworld gods were sometimes used to represent Satan and Hell. For example, a person named Abbo Cernuus, who wrote about the Siege of Paris, called the Vikings "spawn of Pluto."

In a book called Little Book on Images of the Gods, Pluto is described as a scary figure sitting on a sulfur throne, holding a scepter in one hand and choking a soul with the other. Cerberus, a three-headed dog, stood under his feet, and Harpies, evil spirits, were beside him. Four rivers — Lethe, Cocytus, Phlegethon, and Acheron — flowed from his throne. These rivers were part of the Stygian swamp.

Medieval and Renaissance literature

In Dante's Divine Comedy, written between 1308 and 1321, Pluto rules over the fourth circle of Hell, where greedy people are punished. Dante calls Pluto "the great enemy" and says a mysterious line: "Papé Satàn, papé Satàn aleppe." This part of the poem talks about how luck can give and take away. After entering this circle, Dante and his guide go through the Stygian swamp on their way to the city of Dis. Dante separates Pluto from Dis, suggesting he was thinking of Plutus, the god of wealth. The city of Dis is where fallen angels and Furies guard the walls. Another writer, Tasso, also treat Pluto as a Satanic figure.

Geoffrey Chaucer, writing between 1343 and 1400, brought the story of Pluto and Proserpina into English literature. Chaucer also described Pluto as the "King of Fairyland" in one of his tales. The Scottish poet William Dunbar described Pluto as a folkloric being who appeared among the courtiers of Cupid.

The writer Arthur Golding made the name Pluto more common in English by translating Ovid's Metamorphoses in 1565. This influenced writers like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser. Golding translated Ovid's Dis as Pluto, a practice that continues today, even though John Milton used Dis in Paradise Lost. The idea of the underworld as Hell also influenced Golding's translations.

Pluto's court was a popular setting in stories. In a 13th-century poem, Pluto rules over a group of gods, demons, and evil Christians. In a 15th-century dream story, the gods and other figures are dressed like medieval nobles and enjoy the "magnyfycence" of their "lord Pluto."

During the Renaissance, ideas and images from ancient times became popular again. They appeared in books, festivals, and public shows. The Fête-Dieu festival in Aix-en-Provence in 1462 included Pluto, and he was part of pageants in London in 1521. The story of Orpheus going to the underworld to get back his wife was very popular on stage. Leonardo da Vinci even designed a set where a mountain opened to show Pluto coming out.

Opera and ballet

The story of Orpheus going to the underworld to bring back his wife was a great story for operas and ballets. Pluto often appeared in these works, usually sung by a bass voice to show the deep and heavy feeling of the underworld. Famous operas include Monteverdi and Rinuccini's L'Orfeo from 1607 and Caccini's Euridice from 1602. In some operas, Pluto was sung by a baritone, like in Lully's Proserpine from 1680.

Pluto was also a character in ballets. In Lully's "Ballet of Seven Planets," King Louis XIV of France danced as Pluto. Other ballets featuring Pluto include Noverre's La descente d'Orphée aux Enfers and Gaétan Vestris in Orefeo ed Euridice. The Persephone ballet by Robert Joffrey in 1952 was based on a line by André Gide.

Fine art

The story of Pluto taking Proserpina was a favorite subject for artists. They often followed Ovid's version of the story. Major artists who painted or sculpted Pluto include Dürer, Caravaggio, Jan Brueghel the Elder, Bernini, and Rembrandt.

Modern literature

Later, writers like Thomas Hardy and D.H. Lawrence used the story of Pluto and Proserpina in their books. In Rick Riordan's The Heroes of Olympus, a character named Hazel Levesque is the daughter of Pluto, the god of riches.

Scientific terms

The name Pluto has inspired many scientific terms. For example, there is a dwarf planet called Pluto, along with related terms like plutoid and plutino. The element plutonium is named after this dwarf planet and is the heaviest naturally occurring element. In geology, "pluton" is a term used to describe certain types of rock formations, and plutonism refers to a theory about how the Earth's crust forms.