Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War, from 1756 to 1763, was a big war fought by many powerful countries. It happened mainly in Europe but also in places like North America and the Indian subcontinent. The main sides were Great Britain and Prussia against France and Austria, with other countries like Portugal, Spain, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia joining in.

Even though a earlier war called the War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748, the peace didn’t last. Soon after, big changes happened in how countries worked together, called the Diplomatic Revolution. This led to more fighting when Austria and France declared war on Britain.

The war had many parts all over the world. In Europe, the fighting was mostly about Austria trying to take back a place called Silesia. When it ended, Prussia kept control of Silesia, which changed the balance of power in Europe. The war also affected places far away, with France losing some of its lands in North America, while Britain grew stronger in India.

Background

Further information: Diplomatic Revolution

In North America

In the 1750s, the border between lands ruled by Britain and France in North America was not clearly defined. France claimed all of the land around the Mississippi River, but Britain disagreed. To strengthen their claim, the French built a line of forts in the Ohio River Valley. This made British settlers worried, as they feared the French would encourage nearby Native American tribes to attack them. The British also wanted control of the Ohio River Valley for new settlers moving into their colonies.

One important French fort was planned at "the Forks," where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers join to form the Ohio River, near today’s Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. British attempts to stop this fort failed, and the French built Fort Duquesne. British soldiers from Virginia, led by George Washington and accompanied by Chief Tanacharison and some Mingo warriors, attacked a small French group at Jumonville Glen on May 28, 1754. The French responded by attacking Fort Necessity on July 3, 1754, and George Washington was forced to surrender. These events were the first battles of what would become the global Seven Years' War.

After these battles, Britain and France did not talk things out. Both countries sent more soldiers to North America to protect their claims. Britain first attacked the area of Acadia on June 16, 1755, in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour, followed by the expulsion of the Acadians. In July 1755, British General Edward Braddock tried to retake Fort Duquesne but was defeated badly. Admiral Edward Boscawen also captured a French ship, the Alcide, on June 8, 1755. In September 1755, British and French troops fought an unclear battle at Lake George.

The British navy began attacking French ships in August 1755, taking many and capturing sailors. France, angry about this, prepared to attack Hanover, whose leader was also the king of Great Britain. Britain made a treaty with Prussia to protect Hanover. In response, France made an alliance with Austria, changing the balance of power in Europe, known as the Diplomatic Revolution.

In Europe

The War of the Austrian Succession, from 1740 to 1748, ended with the Prussian King Frederick II taking the rich land of Silesia from Austria. Austria, led by Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, signed a peace treaty in 1748 to rebuild its military and make new friends.

Before the Seven Years' War, Europe had its usual alliances. But things changed dramatically in 1756. Austria wanted to work with Russia to plan against Prussia. Russia had promised to help Austria get Silesia back. However, France, traditionally an enemy of Britain and Austria, had made a secret deal with Prussia. This upset the balance, and soon France switched sides, making an alliance with Austria. This sudden shift in friendships, called the "Diplomatic Revolution," helped start the war.

King George II of Great Britain cared deeply about his family’s lands in Germany, but he also had to think about British colonies across the ocean. France wanted to expand its colonies and was ready to use its position in Germany to its advantage. France kept its plans secret through a private network run by King Louis XV, which sometimes worked against France’s official policies.

Prussia, led by Frederick II, saw chances to grow by taking land from Saxony and Polish West Prussia but couldn’t count on France’s help if he started a war. If Prussia joined France against Britain to take Hanover, it might face a attack from Austria and Russia. Saxony’s leader, Frederick Augustus II, was also the king of Poland, but neither country was very powerful.

Britain tried to keep its friends happy. It promised to help Russia send soldiers to protect Hanover. But Britain also made a secret deal with Prussia, promising to help each other. This deal upset Russia and France. In response, France and Austria made a treaty to help each other if either was attacked. These changing friendships made war almost certain.

Methods and technologies

Further information: Early modern warfare

In the 1700s, European wars used guns along with older weapons like swords. Armies had lines of infantry soldiers with flintlock muskets and bayonets. Cavalrymen carried sabres and pistols or carbines; lighter cavalry scouts were used for watching the enemy, while heavier cavalry attacked in groups. Artillery gave support and was important in attacks on strong points. Wars often centered around taking and holding fortifications, with long sieges common. Big battles in open fields were less frequent.

These wars were called “cabinet wars” because regular armies, supplied by their governments, fought for their kings’ interests. Armies often took money from places they occupied, but they still needed supplies from home. Supplies were kept in stores and moved by wagons, which could be easy targets for enemies. Armies usually stopped fighting in winter and set up camp, starting again in spring.

Coalitions

The first group in the war was led by Britain and Prussia. Seven smaller German states joined Britain, sending nearly 50,000 soldiers overall. Portugal joined later after being attacked by Spain. Russia briefly helped Prussia but left after a change in leaders. Some Native American groups also fought with Britain.

The second group was led by France and Austria, with Sweden joining in 1756 and Spain in 1762. Russia fought with them for most of the war but switched sides in early 1762 and left later that year. Many smaller German states joined Austria, saying they were acting for the whole empire. The state of Bengal also fought Britain in India with French help. In North America, some groups sided with France.

Many German states stayed neutral, with Piedmont-Savoy being the largest.

Strategies

For much of the 1700s, France usually did not send many soldiers to help its colonies fight. This was partly because the British navy was very strong, making it hard for France to send supplies and support overseas. France focused most of its army on Europe, hoping to win battles there and then trade land in Europe to get back colonies lost elsewhere. However, this plan did not work well in this war, and France lost many colonies.

The British usually did not send many soldiers to fight in Europe. Instead, they used their money to support armies of other countries that were enemies of France. They also used their strong navy to block enemy ports, attack enemy ships, and move troops quickly by sea to fight in colonies. This helped them win many battles overseas.

Europe

Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War

William Pitt the Elder entered the government in 1756 and had a clear plan for the war. He wanted Britain to focus on taking French lands, especially in North America and India. The Royal Navy was key to this plan, as it could control the seas and support invasions. Pitt also planned to use troops from the American colonies, led by British soldiers, to attack French areas. He aimed to keep the French army busy by supporting other European countries. Pitt led the government from 1756 to 1761, and even after that, Britain followed his strategy, which proved very successful. Pitt understood the great value of the lands Britain could gain and saw how vulnerable the French empire was.

1756

See also: Third Silesian War

The British prime minister, the Duke of Newcastle, hoped that new alliances would prevent war in Europe. However, the French gathered a large force at Toulon and started the war by attacking the British at Menorca in the Mediterranean. A British attempt to help Menorca failed at the Battle of Menorca, and the island was captured on June 28. For this, Admiral Byng was tried and executed. Britain officially declared war on France on May 17, nearly two years after fighting had begun in the Ohio Country.

Frederick II of Prussia, after hearing about the fighting in North America, formed an alliance with Great Britain. On August 29, 1756, he led Prussian troops into Saxony, a small German state allied with Austria. He had three goals: to seize Saxony, use its army and money for Prussia, move into Bohemia for winter, and invade Moravia to take the Olmütz fortress and march on Vienna to end the war.

The Saxon and Austrian armies were not ready, and their forces were spread out. Frederick took Dresden with little resistance. At the Battle of Lobositz on October 1, 1756, Frederick faced a surprise from the Austrian army under General Maximilian Ulysses Browne. He was outmaneuvered and outgunned, and at one point ordered his troops to fire on their own retreating cavalry. Frederick fled the battlefield, leaving Field Marshall Keith in charge. Browne also left to meet a Saxon army at Pirna. Since the Prussians still held the field, Frederick claimed victory. The Prussians then took Saxony; after the siege of Pirna, the Saxon army surrendered in October 1756 and was forced to join the Prussian army. Attacking neutral Saxony caused anger across Europe and strengthened the alliance against Prussia. The Austrians had partly occupied Silesia and stopped Frederick from setting up winter in Bohemia. Frederick was overconfident, and his mistakes cost Prussia dearly. He later said he was not fighting the same Austrians as in previous wars.^{[page needed]}

Britain was surprised by Prussia’s quick attack but started sending supplies and money to its ally. A combined force of allied German states was organized by Britain to protect Hanover from French invasion, led by the Duke of Cumberland. Britain tried to get the Dutch Republic to join, but they refused, wanting to stay neutral. Despite being outnumbered, Prussia had a good year on the continent, unlike Britain’s struggles in North America.

1757

See also: Pomeranian War

On April 18, 1757, Frederick II marched into the Kingdom of Bohemia, hoping to defeat the Austrian army. After winning the bloody Battle of Prague on May 6, 1757, the Prussians trapped the Austrians in Prague. Frederick then sent some troops to help the Duke of Brunswick-Bevern at Kolín. Austrian commander Leopold von Daun arrived to help Prague. Frederick had too few troops to both surround Prague and stop Daun, so he attacked Daun’s prepared positions. The Battle of Kolín was Frederick’s first defeat. His losses forced him to end the siege and leave Bohemia.

Later that summer, the Russians under Field Marshal Apraksin besieged Memel with 75,000 troops. After five days of bombing, the Russian army took the fortress. The Russians then used Memel as a base to invade East Prussia and defeated a smaller Prussian force at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf on August 30, 1757. This battle made the Prussians respect the Russian army more. However, the Russians could not take Königsberg because they ran out of cannonballs at Memel, and they soon pulled back.

Supply problems continued for the Russians. They struggled to keep their armies supplied in Central Europe because of poor roads and lack of proper support. This was seen before in the Russian-Ottoman War of 1735–1739, and it happened again in Prussia. Still, the Russian army was a new threat to Prussia. Frederick had to stop his invasion of Bohemia and pull back into Prussian lands. His defeats brought more countries into the war. Sweden declared war on Prussia and invaded Pomerania with 17,000 men, thinking this small force was enough because Prussia was busy elsewhere.

This problem got worse when the Hanoverian army under Cumberland, including troops from Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick, was defeated at the Battle of Hastenbeck and forced to surrender at the Convention of Klosterzeven after a French Invasion of Hanover. This took Hanover out of the war, leaving Prussia’s western border very weak. Frederick asked Britain for more help, as he now had no outside military support in Germany.

Things looked bad for Prussia, with the Austrians getting ready to attack Prussian lands and a French and Reichsarmee force under Prince Soubise coming from the west. The Reichsarmee was a group of armies from small German states that joined together to support the Holy Roman Emperor Franz I of Austria against Frederick. However, in November and December 1757, the situation in Germany changed completely. First, Frederick crushed Soubise’s forces at the Battle of Rossbach on November 5, 1757, and then defeated a much larger Austrian army at the Battle of Leuthen on December 5, 1757. Rossbach was the only battle between the French and Prussians in the whole war. At Rossbach, Prussia lost about 548 men, while the Franco-Reichsarmee force lost about 10,000. Frederick always called Leuthen his greatest victory, and many agreed, as the Austrian Army was known to be very strong. With these wins, Frederick again became Europe’s top general, and his soldiers were respected. However, Frederick missed a chance to fully defeat the Austrian army at Leuthen; though weakened, it escaped back to Bohemia. He hoped these big victories would make Maria Theresa agree to peace, but she was determined to take back Silesia first. Maria Theresa also improved her commanders after Leuthen by replacing her ineffective brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine, with Daun, now a field marshal.

Thinking no more Russian attacks would come until 1758, Frederick moved most of his eastern troops to Pomerania under Marshal Lehwaldt to stop the Swedish invasion. Quickly, the Prussian army pushed the Swedes back, took most of Swedish Pomerania, and blockaded its capital Stralsund. George II of Great Britain, advised by his ministers after Rossbach, cancelled the Convention of Klosterzeven, and Hanover joined the war again. Over the winter, the new Hanoverian commander, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, regrouped his army and attacked the French, pushing them back across the River Rhine. Ferdinand’s forces kept Prussia’s western side safe for the rest of the war. Britain had more losses in North America, especially at Fort William Henry. But in Britain, stability returned. Since 1756, governments led by Newcastle and Pitt had changed. In August 1757, they formed a partnership and created a coalition government that gave clearer direction to the war. The new plan combined Newcastle’s support for Britain’s role on the continent, especially defending German lands, with Pitt’s goal of using naval power to take French colonies worldwide. This “dual strategy” guided Britain for the next five years.

Between October 10 and 17, 1757, a Hungarian general, Count András Hadik, serving in the Austrian army, did one of the most famous hussar actions ever. While King Frederick was marching south with his powerful armies, Hadik suddenly moved his force of 5,000, mostly hussars, around the Prussians and took over part of their capital, Berlin, for one night. The city was saved by paying a ransom of 200,000 thalers. When Frederick heard about this embarrassing takeover, he quickly sent a larger force to free the city. But Hadik left Berlin with his hussars and safely reached the Austrian lines. Hadik was then promoted to marshal in the Austrian Army.

1758

In early 1758, Frederick invaded Moravia and surrounded Olmütz (now Olomouc, Czech Republic). After an Austrian victory at the Battle of Domstadtl that destroyed a supply convoy for Olmütz, Frederick ended the siege and left Moravia. This was the last time he tried to invade Austrian land. In January 1758, the Russians invaded East Prussia, where the area, almost empty of troops, offered little resistance. East Prussia was occupied by Russian forces over the winter and stayed under their control until 1762, though it was less important to Prussia than Brandenburg or Silesia. Frederick did not see the Russians as an immediate threat and hoped to first fight a big battle against Austria to take them out of the war.

In April 1758, Britain made the Anglo-Prussian Convention with Frederick, agreeing to pay him ^{[page needed]} an annual subsidy of £670,000. Britain also sent 9,000 troops to help Ferdinand’s Hanoverian army, the first time Britain sent troops to the continent, changing Pitt’s earlier policy. Ferdinand’s Hanoverian army, with some Prussian troops, pushed the French out of Hanover and Westphalia and retook the port of Emden in March 1758. They then crossed the Rhine, alarming France. Despite Ferdinand’s victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld and briefly taking Düsseldorf, he had to pull back across the Rhine because of larger French forces.

By this time, Frederick was worried about the Russian advance from the east and moved to stop it. Near the Oder in Brandenburg-Neumark, at the Battle of Zorndorf (now Sarbinowo, Poland), Frederick’s Prussian army of 35,000 fought Russia’s 43,000 men under Count William Fermor on August 25, 1758. Both sides lost many men—Prussia 12,800, Russia 18,000—but the Russians pulled back after the battle, and Frederick claimed victory. Historian Daniel Marston called Zorndorf a “draw” because both sides were too tired and had lost so many that neither wanted to fight again. In the unclear Battle of Tornow on September 25, a Swedish army stopped six Prussian attacks but did not march on Berlin after the Battle of Fehrbellin.

The war was still uncertain when on October 14, Marshal Daun’s Austrians surprised the main Prussian army at the Battle of Hochkirch in Saxony. Frederick lost many of his cannons but retreated in order, helped by thick woods. The Austrians did not make much progress in Saxony after Hochkirch and failed to get a big win. After trying and failing to take Dresden, Daun’s troops had to pull back to Austria for the winter, so Saxony stayed under Prussian control. At the same time, the Russians failed to take Kolberg in Pomerania (now Kołobrzeg, Poland) from the Prussians.^{[page needed]}

In France, 1758 was disappointing, and a new leader, the Duc de Choiseul, took over. Choiseul planned to end the war in 1759 by attacking Britain and Hanover strongly.

1759–1760

Prussia had several losses in 1759. At the Battle of Kay, or Paltzig, Russia’s Count Saltykov with 40,000 Russians beat 26,000 Prussians led by General Carl Heinrich von Wedel. Though the Hanoverians beat an army of 60,000 French at Minden, Austrian general Daun forced a whole Prussian group of 13,000 to surrender at the Battle of Maxen. Frederick himself lost half his army at the Battle of Kunersdorf (now Kunowice, Poland), his worst loss ever, which almost made him step down and think about ending his life. This loss was partly because he underestimated the Russians, who had already shown their strength at Zorndorf and Gross-Jägersdorf (now Motornoye, Russia), and partly because the Russians and Austrians worked well together. But disagreements between the Austrians about supplies and support made the Russians pull back east again after Kunersdorf, letting Frederick regroup his weakened army.

The French planned to attack the British Isles in 1759 by gathering troops near the Loire and bringing together their Brest and Toulon fleets. But two sea battles stopped this. In August, the Mediterranean fleet under Jean-François de La Clue-Sabran was scattered by a larger British fleet under Edward Boscawen at the Battle of Lagos. In the Battle of Quiberon Bay on November 20, British admiral Edward Hawke with 23 ships of the line met the French Brest fleet with 21 ships under Marshal de Conflans and sank, captured, or forced many to run aground, ending France’s plans.

1760 brought more losses for Prussia. General Fouqué was beaten by the Austrians at the Battle of Landeshut. The French took Marburg in Hesse, and the Swedes took part of Pomerania. The Hanoverians beat the French at the Battle of Warburg, stopping France from sending troops to help the Austrians against Prussia in the east.

Even so, the Austrians, led by General Laudon, took Glatz (now Kłodzko, Poland) in Silesia. In the Battle of Liegnitz, Frederick won a big victory even though he was outnumbered three to one. The Russians under General Saltykov and Austrians under General Lacy briefly took his capital, Berlin, in October but could not hold it. Still, losing Berlin to the Russians and Austrians was a big blow to Frederick’s reputation, as many said the Prussians had no hope of taking St. Petersburg or Vienna even for a short time. In November 1760, Frederick won again, beating Daun at the Battle of Torgau, but he lost many men, and the Austrians pulled back in order.

After Kunersdorf, the Russian army did little because their supply lines were weak. Russian supplies were so bad that in October 1759, the Austrians agreed to supply the Russians, but the Austrian system was strained by having to support both armies. In practice, the Russians got little help from the Austrians. At Liegnitz (now Legnica, Poland), the Russians arrived too late for the battle. They tried twice to take the fortress at Kolberg but failed. Kolberg’s strong defense let Frederick focus on the Austrians instead of splitting his forces.

1761–1762

See also: Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762) and Anglo-Spanish War (1762–1763)

Prussia started the 1761 campaign with only 100,000 troops, many new recruits, and its situation looked very bad. But the Austrian and Russian forces were also weakened and could not start a big attack.^{[citation needed]}

In February 1761, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised French troops at Langensalza and then tried to besiege Cassel in March. He had to end the siege and pull back after French forces regrouped and captured many of his men at the Battle of Grünberg. At the Battle of Villinghausen, Ferdinand’s forces beat a 92,000-man French army.^{[citation needed]}

On the eastern front, progress was very slow. The Russian Army depended on its main supply points in Poland, and the Prussian Army made several successful attacks against them. One attack led by general Platen in September resulted in the loss of 2,000 Russians, mostly captured, and the destruction of 5,000 wagons.^{[page needed]} Without enough men, the Prussians had to use new tactics, like raiding, to slow down their enemies. Frederick’s army, though weak, was left alone at its base in Brunzelwitz because the Austrians and Russians were not willing to attack it. However, at the end of 1761, Prussia had two big problems. The Russians under Zakhar Chernyshev and Pyotr Rumyantsev took Kolberg in Pomerania, and the Austrians captured Schweidnitz. Losing Kolberg cost Prussia its last port on the Baltic Sea. A big problem for Russia throughout the war was its weak supplies, which stopped its generals from following up victories, but now with Kolberg taken, the Russians could finally supply their armies in Central Europe by sea, which was faster and safer than land. This shift threatened to change the balance of power against Prussia, as Frederick could not spare troops to protect his capital. In Britain, people thought Prussia might completely collapse.^{[citation needed]}

Britain threatened to stop its money help if Frederick did not think about making peace. With Prussia’s armies down to 60,000 men and Berlin about to be surrounded, Prussia’s survival was in danger. Then on January 5, 1762, the Russian Empress Elizabeth died. Her supporter of Prussia, Peter III, took over, ended the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania (see: the Treaty of Saint Petersburg), and made a truce with Sweden. He also sent some of his troops to help Frederick. Frederick could then gather a bigger army of 120,000 men and focus on Austria.^{[page needed]} He pushed them out of much of Silesia after recapturing Schweidnitz, while his brother Henry won in Saxony at the Battle of Freiberg (October 29, 1762). At the same time, his Brunswick allies took the important town of Göttingen and also captured Cassel.^{[citation needed]}

Two new countries joined the war in 1762. Britain declared war on Spain on January 4, 1762; Spain responded by declaring war on Britain on January 18. Portugal joined the war on Britain’s side. Spain, with French help, invaded Portugal and took Almeida. But British reinforcements stopped them, and in the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara British-Portuguese forces attacked a big Spanish supply base. The invaders were stopped at the heights in front of Abrantes (called the pass to Lisbon) where the Anglo-Portuguese were entrenched. Eventually, the Anglo-Portuguese army, with local fighters and using a scorched earth strategy, pushed the smaller Franco-Spanish army back to Spain, taking back almost all the lost towns, including the Spanish headquarters at Castelo Branco, which was full of wounded and sick soldiers.

Meanwhile, the long British sea blockade of French ports lowered the spirit of French people. Morale got worse when news of losing the Battle of Signal Hill in Newfoundland reached Paris. After Russia changed sides, Sweden left, and Prussia won against Austria, Louis XV decided Austria could not take back Silesia (which France would get the Austrian Netherlands for) without money and help from France, which Louis was no longer willing to give. So he made peace with Frederick and left Prussia’s Rhineland areas, ending France’s part in the war in Germany.

1763

Further information: Treaty of Hubertusburg and Treaty of Paris (1763)

By 1763, the war in central Europe was mainly a stalemate between Prussia and Austria. Prussia had taken back most of Silesia from the Austrians after Frederick’s close win over Daun at the Battle of Burkersdorf. After his brother Henry’s 1762 victory at the Battle of Freiberg, Frederick held most of Saxony but not its capital, Dresden. His money was not great, but his country was ruined, and his army was very weak. He had far fewer soldiers, and he had lost so many good officers and leaders that attacking Dresden seemed impossible. British money help had stopped by the new prime minister, John Stuart (Lord Bute), and the Russian emperor had been replaced by his wife, Catherine, who ended Russia’s friendship with Prussia and left the war. Austria, like most sides, was in serious money trouble and had to make its army smaller, which hurt its ability to attack. By this time, Austria still held Dresden, parts of southeast Saxony, and the county of Glatz in southern Silesia, but without Russian help, winning seemed unlikely, and Maria Theresa was mostly giving up hope of taking Silesia back; her husband, chancellor, and oldest son all told her to make peace, while Daun was not eager to attack Frederick. In 1763, a peace agreement was made at the Treaty of Hubertusburg, where Glatz was given back to Prussia in return for Prussia leaving Saxony. This ended the war in central Europe.

The stalemate had really been reached by 1759–1760, and Prussia and Austria were almost out of money. The equipment of both sides had been mostly used up. Frederick was no longer getting money from Britain; the Golden Cavalry of St. George had given almost 13 million dollars (equivalent). He had melted and turned most of the church silver into coins, taken silver from palaces, and mixed it with copper to make more money. His bank money was gone, and he had sold almost everything valuable from his own estate. While Frederick still had some money left from earlier British help, he hoped to use it to fix his country after the war; in any case, Prussia’s population was so low that he could not fight another long war.^{[page needed]} Similarly, Maria Theresa had reached her limit. She had sold her jewels in 1758; in 1760, she started a public request for help and asked people to bring their silver to the mint. French money help had stopped.^{[page needed]} Though she had many young men she could call up, she could not force them to join and did not try to make people join like Frederick did.^{[page needed]} She had even let some men go because it was too expensive to feed them.^{[page needed]}

British amphibious "descents"

Further information: Raid on Rochefort

Britain planned a “descent” (an amphibious demonstration or raid) on Rochefort, a joint operation to take the town and burn ships in the Charente. The expedition left on September 8, 1757, with Sir John Mordaunt leading the troops and Sir Edward Hawke the fleet. On September 23, the Isle d'Aix was taken, but the military leaders wasted time and lost their chance to attack Rochefort. The expedition left Isle d'Aix and returned to Britain on October 1.

Despite the unclear success and the failure of the Rochefort attack, William Pitt—who liked this type of unusual attack—prepared to keep doing such operations. An army was gathered under Charles Spencer; he was helped by George Germain. The navy and transport ships for the expedition were led by Richard Howe. The army landed on June 5, 1758, at Cancale Bay, moved to St. Malo, and, seeing it would take a long siege to capture it, instead attacked the nearby port of St. Servan. They burned ships in the harbor, about 80 French privateers and merchant ships, as well as four warships being built.^{[page needed]} The force then left under threat of French help arriving. An attack on Havre de Grace was called off, and the fleet went to Cherbourg; bad weather and low supplies led to that being stopped too, and the expedition returned having hurt French privateering and shown more attacks on the French coast.

Pitt now prepared to send troops into Germany; and both Marlborough and Sackville (i.e., Germain), unhappy with what they saw as the uselessness of the “descents”, got positions in that army. The elderly General Bligh was made to lead a new “descent”, escorted by Howe. The campaign started well with the Raid on Cherbourg. Protected by naval bombs, the army pushed away the French force meant to stop their landing, took Cherbourg, and destroyed its forts, docks and ships.

The troops were put back on ships and moved to the Bay of St. Lunaire in Brittany where, on September 3, they landed to attack St. Malo; however, this action did not work. Worse weather made the two groups separate: the ships went to the safer harbor of St. Cast, while the army moved over land. The slow movement of Bligh let a French force of 10,000 from Brest catch up and attack the soldiers getting back on ships. At the Battle of Saint Cast a rear-guard of 1,400 under Dury held off the French while the rest of the army left. They could not be saved; 750, including Dury, were killed and the rest captured.

Other continents

The Seven Years' War was fought in many places around the world, including India, North America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, and coastal Africa. During this time, Great Britain took control of many areas from the French and Spanish Empires.

Great Britain lost the island of Menorca in the Mediterranean to the French in 1756 but captured Fort Saint Louis in Senegal in 1758. A major victory came in 1759 when British forces defeated the French and captured Quebec, which was an important city in New France. Spain joined the war in 1761, and the British captured several important places, including Guadeloupe, Martinique, Havana in Cuba, and Manila in the Philippines. However, the British were unable to move further into Cuba and the Philippines.

North America

Main article: French and Indian War

During the war, the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy allied with the British, while Native American tribes such as the Algonquin, Abenaki, and Huron sided with the French. In 1756 and 1757, the French captured Fort Oswego and Fort William Henry from the British. In 1758, the British captured Louisbourg and other important forts. A big battle happened at Carillon (Ticonderoga), where French forces stopped a large British attack.

In 1759, British forces under James Wolfe began a siege of Quebec. After a famous battle on the Plains of Abraham, the British won and took control of Quebec. The French tried to retake it but failed. By 1760, British forces had taken Montreal, ending French control of North America. In 1762, French forces attacked St. John's in Newfoundland but were defeated by British troops at the Battle of Signal Hill.

South America

See also: Fantastic War and First Cevallos expedition

In South America, Portuguese forces took control of parts of the Rio Negro valley and defended against a Spanish attack. Spanish forces also attacked Portuguese settlements but were forced to retreat. After the war, Spain returned some captured lands to Portugal.

India

Main articles: Third Carnatic War and Bengal War

In India, British and French forces fought for control. The British, led by Robert Clive, recaptured Calcutta and defeated the French at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The British also captured French settlements like Chandernagar and Pondicherry, taking control of French power in India.

West Africa

In West Africa, British forces captured the French settlement of Saint-Louis in Senegal in 1758. They also took other French trading posts, weakening French influence in the region.

Neutral nations during the Seven Years' War

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire stayed out of the Seven Years' War. After fighting and making peace with nearby countries, its leaders decided not to join the war. They felt their country needed rest and had many problems inside to solve.

Persia

Persia was also neutral during the war. Its leader, Karim Khan Zand, was busy taking control of his country and did not want to get involved in the fighting.

Dutch Republic

The Dutch Republic chose to stay neutral. They had been in many costly wars before and wanted to avoid more conflict. Even though other countries tried to bring them in, the Dutch leaders kept their country out of the war.

Denmark–Norway

Denmark–Norway managed to stay neutral during the war. It almost joined on the side of France because of disagreements over land, but lucky changes in leadership prevented this.

Outcomes

Further information: Financial costs of the Seven Years' War and Miracle of the House of Brandenburg

The fighting between Britain and France ended in 1763 with the Treaty of Paris. This treaty involved swapping lands, with France giving Louisiana to Spain and the rest of New France to Britain. Britain gave France back islands like Saint Pierre and Miquelon to keep French fishing rights. France chose to keep its sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique instead of New France. Spain lost Florida to Britain but gained Île d'Orléans and French lands west of the Mississippi River.

In India, Britain kept the Northern Circars but returned French trading ports, though these were made useless by destroyed forts. This ended French power in India and helped Britain take control.

France's navy was weakened by the war and only rebuilt with Spain's help later. The treaty was gentle on France compared to what Britain might have demanded. France planned more military reforms, which later helped its artillery become famous.

The Treaty of Hubertusburg between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony was signed in February 1763. It returned things mostly to how they were before the war, with Prussia keeping Silesia. Saxony was damaged during the war but kept its land.

Austria could not win back Silesia but stopped Prussia from invading Saxony. Its military did better than in past wars, restoring its reputation. Prussia became a major power, known for its strong army under Frederick the Great, though it was weakened by heavy losses.

Russia gained by removing French influence in Poland, which helped it later. Its army proved strong against Prussia, leading to reforms to improve supplies.

Britain ended the war in debt and faced challenges in North America. The Pontiac's War began in 1763 when tribes, unhappy with British rule after France left, rebelled. The British lost many forts but kept control after winning the Battle of Bushy Run. King George III's Proclamation of 1763 tried to calm the tribes by stopping settlers beyond the Appalachians, but this upset the American colonists. The Quebec Act 1774 also upset colonists by protecting French language and Catholic religion in Quebec.

The war ended Europe's old alliance system. After the war, many European powers saw Britain as a bigger threat and did not ally with it, which later hurt Britain during the American Revolutionary War.

Cultural references

The Seven Years' War has inspired many stories, films, and games. The novel The Luck of Barry Lyndon by William Makepeace Thackeray and the film Barry Lyndon by Stanley Kubrick are both set during this time. Voltaire's book Candide also uses events from the war in its early chapters.

There are also board games and strategy games like Friedrich, Rise of Prussia, and scenes in Age of Empires III that focus on the war. The novel The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper and some missions in Assassin's Creed III and Assassin's Creed Rogue take place during this period as well. Many places, like Frederick, Maryland, were named to remember important leaders from the war.