Somalia

Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is the easternmost country in continental Africa, located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline of any country on Africa's mainland and a population of over 18 million, with the capital city being Mogadishu.

Historically, Somalia was a key trading center, and powerful empires like the Ajuran Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, and the Sultanate of the Geledi once thrived there. In the late 19th century, European powers colonized the region, forming Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland. These two territories united in 1960 to create an independent nation. However, political instability and conflict have shaped much of Somalia's recent history.

Today, Somalia is one of the least developed countries in the world. Its economy relies on livestock, money sent home by Somalis living abroad, and strong communication networks. Despite challenges, Somalia is working toward rebuilding and development. It belongs to many international groups, including the United Nations, the Arab League, and the African Union.

Etymology

The name "Somali" comes from Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of many Somali clans. Another theory says the name might come from the words soo and maal, meaning "go" and "milk". This refers to the important role of raising animals in Somali culture. Yet another idea is that "Somali" comes from an Arabic word meaning "wealthy", pointing to the Somalis' richness in livestock.

An old Chinese document from the 9th century called the northern coast of Somalia Po-pa-li. The first clear written use of the name Somali was in the 15th century in a hymn celebrating a victory over the Sultanate of Ifat. Somalis prefer the name Somali over Somalian, as the first is the name they use for themselves.

History

Main article: History of Somalia

Prehistory

Somalia was likely one of the first lands settled by early humans because of its location. People who would later move out of Africa probably lived here before they left. During the Stone Age, cultures like the Doian and Hargeisan grew here. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC. Stone tools from the Jalelo site in the north show important archaeological findings from the Paleolithic period.

According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking people arrived in the region during the Neolithic period from their original homeland in the Nile Valley or the Near East.

The Laas Geel complex near Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia dates back about 5,000 years and has rock art showing wild animals and decorated cows. Other cave paintings are found in the northern Dhambalin region, featuring one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. These rock artworks are dated between 1,000 and 3,000 BC. Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in northern Somalia lies Karinhegane, a site with many cave paintings estimated to be around 2,500 years old.

The camel is believed to have been tamed in the Horn region between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BC. From there, it spread to Egypt and the Maghreb.

Antiquity and classical era

Main article: Somali architecture

Ancient pyramid-like structures, mausoleums, ruined cities, and stone walls, such as the Wargaade Wall, show evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula. This civilization traded with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since the second millennium BC, suggesting Somalia or nearby regions might have been the location of the ancient Land of Punt. The people of the region traded myrrh, spices, gold, ebony, cattle, ivory, and frankincense with Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese, and Romans through their ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by Queen Hatshepsut of the 18th dynasty is recorded on temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, during the reign of the Munite King Parahu and Queen Ati.

In the classical era, the Macrobians, who may have been ancestors of Somalis, established a powerful kingdom in parts of modern Somalia. They were known for their long lives and wealth, and were called the "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II, after conquering Egypt in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia with gifts for the Macrobian king. The Macrobian ruler, chosen for his height and beauty, challenged the Persians with an unstrung bow: if they could draw it, they could invade; otherwise, they should thank the gods the Macrobians never decided to attack. The Macrobians were known for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful they shackled prisoners in golden chains.

During the classical period, city-states like Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon, and Sarapion developed a busy trade network, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, the Nabataean Kingdom, and the Roman Empire. They used the ancient Somali maritime ship called the beden to carry their goods.

After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and Roman presence at Aden to stop piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to stop Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula to protect Somali and Arab traders. However, Indian merchants still traded in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which were free from Roman control. For centuries, Indian merchants brought large amounts of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands. The source of the cinnamon and other spices was believed to be the Somali peninsula. The agreement among Somali and Arab traders made the cinnamon trade very profitable.

Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages

Main articles: Somali aristocratic and court titles, Ifat Sultanate, Walashma dynasty, Sultanate of Mogadishu, Adal Sultanate, and Ajuran Sultanate

Islam came to the area early, with Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Zeila being built before the direction of prayer toward Mecca. It is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims lived along the northern Somali coast. He also mentioned that the Adal Kingdom had its capital in the city. According to Leo Africanus, the Adal Sultanate was ruled by local Somali dynasties and covered the area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui, bordered by the Ajuran Empire to the south and the Abyssinian Empire to the west.

During the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somaliland, leading to stories about Muslim leaders like Daarood and Ishaaq bin Ahmed, said to be ancestors of the Darod and Isaaq clans, who married into the local Dir clan.

In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was killed in a campaign against Abyssinian emperor Amda Seyon I. When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was killed by Emperor Dawit I in Zeila in 1410, his children fled to Yemen, returning in 1415. In the early 15th century, Adal's capital moved inland to Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din II established a new base after returning from Yemen.

The Muslim Chinese diplomat Zheng He visited Mogadishu during his voyages to the Horn of Africa.

Adal's headquarters moved southward to Harar the next century. From there, Adal organized an army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, known as Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran", meaning "the left-handed", and his top general Garad Matan. Imam Ahmed's clan was from the Geri Koombe, a sub-clan of Darod. This 16th-century campaign is known as the Conquest of Abyssinia (Futuh al-Habash). During the war, Imam Ahmad used cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, imported through Zeila, against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama.

During the Ajuran Sultanate period, cities like Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, and Hobyo flourished and traded with ships from Arabia, India, Venetia, Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and even China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, described it as a large city with tall houses, palaces, and many mosques with cylindrical minarets. The Harla, an early Hamitic group of tall people in parts of Somalia, built various tumuli. These builders are thought to be ancestors of ethnic Somalis.

In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, receiving gold, wax, and ivory in return. Barbosa also described the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit in coastal markets, which made merchants very wealthy. Mogadishu, known for its textile industry called toob benadir, along with Merca and Barawa, served as a stop for Swahili traders from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa. Jewish merchants from Hormuz brought Indian textiles and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.

Trading relations began with Malacca in the 15th century, with cloth, ambergris, and porcelain traded. Giraffes, zebras, and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, making Somali merchants leaders in trade between East Asia and the Horn. Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate used Somali ports like Merca and Barawa to trade safely away from Portuguese and Omani interference.

Early modern era and the scramble for Africa

Main articles: Geledi sultanate, Isaaq Sultanate, Sultanate of Hobyo, and Dervish movement (Somali)

See also: Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland

In the early modern period, states like the Hiraab Imamate, the Isaaq Sultanate led by the Guled dynasty, the Habr Yunis Sultanate led by the Ainanshe dynasty, the Sultanate of the Geledi, the Majeerteen Sultanate, and the Sultanate of Hobyo flourished in Somalia. They continued the tradition of building castles and trading by sea.

Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, the third Sultan of the Gobroon Dynasty, began a golden age. His army won the Bardheere Jihad, restoring stability and reviving the East African ivory trade. He had good relations and received gifts from rulers of neighboring and distant kingdoms like the Omani, Witu, and Yemeni Sultans.

Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf became one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and forming alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast.

In Somaliland, the Isaaq Sultanate was founded in 1750. It ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries, spanning the territories of the Isaaq clan in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch of the Eidagale clan, led by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi. Oral history says the Isaaq clan-family were previously ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch, starting with descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers, beginning with Boqor Harun (Somali: Boqor Haaruun), who ruled for centuries from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler, Garad Dhuh Barar (Somali: Dhuux Baraar), was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The Tolje'lo clan scattered and mostly live among the Habr Awal.

In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, European powers began the Scramble for Africa. In 1884, Britain declared a protectorate over part of Somalia on the coast opposite South Yemen. It was first under the Indian Office, then transferred to London in 1898. In 1889, Italy established the protectorate and later colony of Italian Somalia through treaties with chiefs and sultans; Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid first requested Italy in late 1888 to make his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate before signing a treaty in 1889.

The Dervish movement successfully repelled the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coast. The Darawiish defeated Italian, British, and Abyssinian forces, most notably at Cagaarweyne in 1903, leading the British to retreat to the coast in the early 1900s. The Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.

The rise of fascism in the early 1920s changed Italy's strategy, planning to include northeastern sultanates in La Grande Somalia ("Greater Somalia"). With Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi arriving on 15 December 1923, aggressive expansion and large construction projects began in Italian Somaliland. The last land Italy acquired was Oltre Giuba, today's Jubaland region, in 1925.

Italy built local infrastructure like hospitals, farms, and schools. Fascist Italy, under Benito Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935 to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by the League of Nations, but no action was taken. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integrated into Italian East Africa, along with Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the Somalia Governorate. On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali units, invaded British Somaliland from Ethiopia and took Berbera by 14 August.^{[citation needed]}

A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched a campaign in January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February, most of Italian Somaliland was captured, and British Somaliland was retaken by March. The British forces included South African, West African, and East African troops, assisted by Somali forces from the Isaaq, Dhulbahante, and Warsangali clans. The number of Italian Somalis declined after World War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining by 1960.

Independence (1960–1969)

Main articles: Trust Territory of Somaliland, State of Somaliland, Somali Republic, Greater Somalia, and Somali Youth League

After World War II, Britain controlled both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, with the condition—first proposed by the Somali Youth League and other Somali groups—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained a British protectorate until 1960.

The UN mandate allowed Somalis to gain experience in Western political education and self-government, an advantage British Somaliland lacked. Despite efforts by British officials in the 1950s, the protectorate lagged in political development. This gap would later cause integration difficulties.

In 1948, under pressure from World War II allies and against Somali wishes, Britain returned the Haud and the Somali Region to Ethiopia based on a 1897 treaty. Britain granted administration of the Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists, despite a plebiscite showing most Somalis there wanted to join the Somali Republic.

A referendum was held in Djibouti (then French Somaliland) in 1958 to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or remain with France. The vote favored staying with France, partly due to the Afar ethnic group and Europeans voting "yes" and widespread vote rigging, including expelling Somalis before the vote. Most "no" votes came from Somalis who wanted to join a united Somalia, as proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi died in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti gained independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, who had campaigned for "yes" in the 1976 referendum, became its first president from 1977 to 1999.

The British Somaliland protectorate became independent as the State of Somaliland on 26 June 1960. On 1 July 1960, the Trust Territory of Somaliland gained independence, and the two united to form the Somali Republic within borders set by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal with others from the trusteeship and protectorate governments, including Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President, and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister, who later became president from 1967 to 1969. On 20 July 1961, a popular referendum ratified the new constitution, drafted in 1960. Most people from the former Somaliland Protectorate did not participate, but only a few Somalilanders who voted opposed the constitution.

In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, appointed by Shermarke, and later President of the autonomous Somaliland region.

Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)

Main articles: Somali Democratic Republic and 1969 Somali coup d'état

Coup d'État

On 15 October, while President Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was visiting drought-stricken Las Anood, his bodyguard shot and killed him. A memo to President Richard Nixon from US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger said the bodyguard acted alone. Six days later, on 21 October, General Siad Barre led a military coup, overthrowing the parliamentary government. Analysts say the coup was due to corruption in the government. The bodyguard was tried, tortured, and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council. He was from the same clan as the president he killed.

Alongside Barre, the SRC included Brigadier General Mohamed Ainanshe Guled, Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye, and Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye was called the "Father of the Revolution", and Barre became head of the SRC. The SRC renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, dissolved parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution.

The revolutionary government started large public works and a literacy campaign, raising the literacy rate to 70%, one of the highest in Africa. The regime nationalized industry and land and emphasized ties with the Arab world, joining the Arab League in February 1974. Barre also chaired the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), predecessor of the African Union.

In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded and formed the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government combining scientific socialism and Islamic principles. The SRSP aimed to blend state ideology with religion, focusing on social progress, equality, and justice. While encouraging limited private investment, the government overall followed a communist direction.

In July 1977, the Ogaden War began when Barre's government tried to incorporate the Somali-majority Ogaden region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. Somali forces took southern and central Ogaden and threatened cities like Dire Dawa. However, Soviet support shifted to Ethiopia, leading to Somali withdrawal by 1978. This loss led Somalia to ally with the United States, building the largest army in Africa.

A new constitution was adopted in 1979 with elections for a People's Assembly, but Barre's party remained in power. By the 1980s, Barre's government became unpopular and authoritarian, with resistance movements forming, leading to the Somali Civil War. Groups included the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM), and Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), along with non-violent opposition groups.

Somali Civil War

Main articles: Somali Civil War, History of Somalia (1991–2006), War in Somalia (2006–2009), Somali Civil War (2009–present), Isaaq genocide, and Somaliland War of Independence

As Barre's government lost support, resistance movements backed by Ethiopia appeared across the country. Barre responded with harsh measures, including bombing cities like Hargeisa, a SNM stronghold, in 1988.

Barre's rule ended in 1991 when he was overthrown by opposition groups backed by Ethiopia and Libya. The northern part declared independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991, though not recognized internationally except by Israel in 2025.

Many opposition groups competed for power in the south. In Mogadishu, leaders like General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed clashed for control. An international conference in Djibouti in 1991 led to recognition of Muhammad as president, but he could only control parts of the capital. The country was called a "failed state" in the early 1990s due to lack of central authority.

Transitional institutions

Main articles: Transitional National Government, Transitional Federal Institutions, Transitional Federal Government, and Transitional Federal Parliament

The Transitional National Government (TNG) was created in April–May 2000 at the Somalia National Peace Conference in Arta, Djibouti. Abdiqasim Salad Hassan became president of the TNG, meant to guide Somalia to its third permanent government. Internal problems led to four prime minister changes in three years, and the TNG went bankrupt in December 2003. Its term ended then.

On 10 October 2004, legislators chose Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed as the first President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), the TNG's successor. The TFG was the second interim administration to restore institutions after the 1991 collapse of Barre's regime and civil war.

The TFG was Somalia's internationally recognized government until 20 August 2012. It was one of the Transitional Federal Institutions defined in the Transitional Federal Charter adopted in November 2004. The TFG included an executive branch led by the President, with the cabinet reporting through the Prime Minister. It was also used broadly to refer to all three branches.

Islamic Courts Union

See also: Islamic Courts Union

In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) took control of much of southern Somalia for six months and applied Shari'a law. UN officials called this period a "Golden era" for Somali politics.

Transitional Federal Government

See also: Somalia War (2006–2009) and Battle of Mogadishu (2006)

The TFG aimed to regain control, and with help from Ethiopian troops, African Union peacekeepers, and US air support, it drove out the ICU and strengthened its rule. On 8 January 2007, TFG President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed entered Mogadishu with Ethiopian support for the first time since his election. The government moved to Villa Somalia in the capital from Baidoa, marking the first time since 1991 the federal government controlled most of the country.

Al-Shabaab insurgency

See also: Al-Shabaab (militant group) and Islamic Emirate of Somalia

Al-Shabaab opposed Ethiopian troops in Somalia and continued fighting the TFG. From 2007 to 2008, Al-Shabaab won battles, taking key towns and ports in central and southern Somalia. By January 2009, they and other militias forced Ethiopian troops to leave, leaving an under-equipped African Union force to help TFG troops.

Due to lack of funds, an arms embargo, and little international support, Yusuf had to send troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to fight insurgents in the south. This left little money for Puntland's security and workers, making it vulnerable to piracy and attacks.

On 29 December 2008, Yusuf resigned as president before parliament. In his speech broadcast on radio, he expressed regret at not ending the seventeen-year conflict and blamed the international community for not supporting his government.

End of transitional period

See also: Hizbul Islam, Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, Somali Civil War (2009–present), and 2009 timeline of the Somali Civil War

In June 2008, Somalia's government and the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) held peace talks in Djibouti, brokered by the UN's special envoy Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah. The agreement called for Ethiopian troops to leave in exchange for stopping armed conflict. Parliament expanded to 550 seats for ARS members, who elected Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed president. With help from African Union troops, the TFG started a counteroffensive in February 2009 to take control of the south. The TFG allied with the Islamic Courts Union, ARS members, and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, a moderate Sufi militia. Al-Shabaab and Hizbul Islam fought each other in mid-2009. In March 2009, the TFG said it would use Shari'a as the official judicial system. Conflict continued in the south and central regions. By months later, the TFG lost control of over 80% of the disputed territory to Islamist insurgents.

In October 2011, a joint operation called Operation Linda Nchi by Somali, Kenyan, and multinational forces began against Al-Shabaab in southern Somalia. By September 2012, they captured Al-Shabaab's last major base, the southern port of Kismayo. In July 2012, three EU operations started to help Somalia: EUTM Somalia, EU Naval Force Somalia Operation Atalanta, and EUCAP Nestor.

As part of the "Roadmap for the End of Transition", the TFG's interim term ended on 20 August 2012. The Federal Parliament of Somalia was inaugurated at the same time.

Federal government

The Federal Government of Somalia was established in August 2012, the first permanent central government since the civil war began.

2021–2023 drought

The 2021–2023 Somali drought was Somalia's worst in 40 years, affecting 7.8 million people.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Somalia

Somalia borders Djibouti to the northwest, Ethiopia to the west, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Kenya to the southwest. It has the longest coastline of any country in mainland Africa, stretching more than 3,333 kilometres. The land is mostly made up of plateaus, plains, and highlands.

Somalia lies between latitudes 2°S and 12°N, and longitudes 41° and 52°E. It is strategically located near the entrance to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, at the tip of the Horn of Africa.

The country has many islands along its coast, such as the Bajuni Islands and the Saad ad Din Archipelago. Somalia also has two permanent rivers, the Jubba and Shabele, which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands and flow southwards.

Somalia has a variety of landscapes, from dry deserts to grassy plateaus. Some areas are very hot, while others have cooler temperatures in the highlands. The climate is generally dry, with some rainy seasons that bring temporary green landscapes.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Somalia

Hassan Sheikh Mohamud
President since 2022

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Hamza Abdi Barre
Prime Minister since 2022

Somalia is a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic. The president of Somalia is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the Somali Armed Forces and chooses the prime minister to lead as head of government.

The Federal Parliament of Somalia is the country's national parliament. It has two parts: the House of the People and the Senate. Members are elected to serve four-year terms. The parliament elects the President and has the power to pass and veto laws.

The Judiciary of Somalia follows rules set by the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia. The court system has three levels: the Constitutional Court, federal courts, and state courts. Judges are chosen by a special commission.

Somali law combines civil law, Islamic law, and customary law.

After a big change in 1991, there were no connections between the Somaliland government and the government of Somalia.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Somalia

Somalia is divided into seven states and eighteen regions, which are further split into districts. Northern Somalia is divided among autonomous areas like Puntland, Somaliland, and others. Central Somalia has Galmudug, and the far south has Jubaland. New states like South West State and Hirshabelle State have also been created.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Somalia

Somalia handles its foreign relations through the President, Prime Minister, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Federal Government works with other countries on important issues. Somalia has ties with many nations, including Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Turkey. It also has embassies in other countries and is part of groups like the United Nations and the African Union.

Military

Main article: Somali Armed Forces

The Somali Armed Forces protect the country's sovereignty. They include the Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force, and other services. After a civil war, the military was rebuilt, and now the Ministry of Defence oversees it.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Somalia

Human rights are protected by the Federal Constitution and are managed by the Ministry of Human Rights. Somalia has taken steps to support human rights, but there are still challenges.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Somalia

Somalia's economy mainly depends on livestock and money transfers from Somalis living in other countries. Local telecommunications also play a big role. Because of long-lasting civil unrest and lack of official data, it's hard to know exactly how big the economy is or how fast it's growing. In 1994, the GDP was about US$3.3 billion, and by 2009, it had grown to US$5.731 billion.

About 43% of people in Somalia live on less than 1 US dollar a day. Many people are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists, raising goats, sheep, camels, and cattle. Agriculture is very important, making up about 65% of the GDP and employing most of the workforce. Livestock alone contributes about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.

Agriculture

See also: Agriculture in Somalia

Agriculture is the most important part of Somalia's economy, making up about 65% of the GDP and employing 65% of the workforce. Livestock is a big part of this, contributing about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of exports. Other exports include fish, charcoal, and bananas. Sugar, sorghum, and corn are grown for local use. Imports, like goods and services, total about US$460 million per year, and exports are about US$270 million yearly. Remittances from Somalis living abroad, estimated at about US$1 billion, help the economy a lot.

Somalia's location near the Arabian Peninsula has helped its traders compete in the livestock market. Gulf countries have invested in Somalia, building infrastructure and buying farmland. Somalia is also known for producing frankincense and myrrh. The industrial sector, which processes farm products, makes up 10% of GDP. Several private airlines operate in Somalia, and there has been investment in free trade zones and airports.

Monetary and payment system

Main articles: Central Bank of Somalia and Somali shilling

The Central Bank of Somalia manages the country's money. Because people don't trust the local currency, the US dollar is also widely used. The Somali shilling has lost value over time, but this is expected to improve as the Central Bank takes more control. Even without a central bank for many years, Somalia has a strong payment system thanks to private money transfer companies. These companies, known as hawalas, send about US$1.6 billion each year to Somalia from the diaspora. The largest company is Dahabshiil, which operates in many countries.

With better security, many Somalis are returning to invest. This, along with some foreign investment, has helped the Somali shilling gain value. The Somalia Stock Exchange was created in 2012 to attract investment and help rebuild the country after conflict.

Energy and natural resources

Main articles: Mineral industry of Somalia and Oil exploration in Puntland

The World Bank says that in 2007, most electricity in Somalia came from local businesses. Somalia has many natural resources, including uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt, and natural gas. There may also be oil, especially off the northwest coast. Somalia has been a major supplier of uranium in the past. Companies from many countries have been interested in mining these resources.

The Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company, based in Mogadishu, works to provide electricity and gas. It started in 2010 with a $1 billion budget to help local industry grow.

Telecommunications and media

Main articles: Communications in Somalia and Media of Somalia

After the civil war, new telecommunications companies started up, offering mobile phone and internet services. These companies, funded by Somali entrepreneurs and supported by experts from China, South Korea, and Europe, now provide cheap and clear phone calls and internet access. They also allow customers to send money and do banking through mobile phones.

These companies have grown and now serve all cities and towns in Somalia. They compete but have agreed to work together to keep prices fair and networks growing. Somalia has several TV and radio stations, both public and private. The country code for the internet is .so, which was relaunched in 2010.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Somalia

Somalia has many attractions, like historical sites, beaches, waterfalls, mountains, and national parks. The government and regional offices manage tourism. Notable places include the Laas Geel caves with ancient rock art, the Cal Madow, Golis Mountains, and Ogo Mountains, as well as several waterfalls and national parks.

Transport

Main articles: Transport in Somalia and List of airports in Somalia

Somalia has about 22,100 km of roads, with 2,608 km paved. A major highway connects northern cities like Bosaso, Galkayo, and Garowe with southern towns. There are 62 airports, seven with paved runways. Major airports include Aden Adde International Airport in Mogadishu and Hargeisa International Airport in Hargeisa.

Somali Airlines, the national airline, stopped flying during the civil war but plans to restart. Private airlines now serve both domestic and international routes. Somalia has several major seaports, including Mogadishu, Bosaso, Berbera, Kismayo, and Merca.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Somalia

See also: List of cities in Somalia by population

Somalia does not have reliable population data. In 2021, the country was estimated to have around 17.1 million people. The 1975 census recorded about 3.3 million people. A survey by the United Nations in 2013 and 2014 estimated the population to be about 12.3 million.

About 85% of people in Somalia are ethnic Somalis. They have lived in the northern part of the country for a long time and are organized into clans. Civil unrest in the early 1990s caused many educated Somalis to leave the country, forming a large diaspora.

Other ethnic groups make up the rest of Somalia’s population and live mainly in the southern areas. These groups include Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ethiopians, Yemenis, Indians, Persians, Italians, and Britons. The Bantus are the largest minority group and are descendants of slaves brought from southeastern Africa by traders.

Many Somalis live outside Somalia in countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Sweden, Canada, and others. The Somali diaspora plays an important role in the country’s politics and development. The former president of Somalia was from the diaspora and had US citizenship before giving it up in 2019.

Somalia’s population is growing at about 1.75% each year, with a birth rate of 40.87 births per 1,000 people. The total fertility rate is 6.08 children per woman, which is one of the highest in the world. Most people are young, with a median age of 17.7 years. About 44% of the population is aged between 0 and 14 years, 52% between 15 and 64 years, and only 2% aged 65 or older. The number of men and women is roughly equal.

There is limited information about urbanization in Somalia. Estimates suggest that about 37.7% of people lived in towns and cities as of 2008, but this percentage is increasing quickly. Many people have moved from rural areas to cities like Mogadishu since the civil war.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Somalia

Somali is the official language of Somalia, and Arabic is recognized as the second language. Somali belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family and is spoken by most people. It has three main dialects: Northern, Benadir, and Maay. Northern Somali is the basis for Standard Somali. Benadir is spoken along the coast, including in Mogadishu, and has extra sounds not found in Standard Somali. Maay is spoken in southern Somalia by certain clans.

Arabic is spoken by many Somalis due to historical ties with the Arab world and religious education. English is widely taught and used, especially in universities and by international organizations. Italian was once an official language but is now mainly spoken by older people and some government officials.

Other languages include Bravanese, a type of Swahili spoken by the Bravanese people, and Kibajuni, a Swahili dialect spoken by the Bajuni people.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Somalia

Almost all people in Somalia, about 99.8%, follow Islam. Most are Sunni Muslims and follow the Shafi'i school of Islamic law. Sufism, a mystical part of Islam, is also common. The Somali constitution states that Islam is the country’s religion and that laws must agree with Islamic teachings.

Christianity is a very small part of the population, with fewer than 1,000 followers. There is one Catholic diocese in Somalia, based in Mogadishu. The number of Christians has grown very little over time.

Some small groups practice folk religions, mainly among minority ethnic groups in southern Somalia. These traditions come from their ancestors in Southeast Africa.

There are also very few people who follow other religions such as Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, or who do not follow any religion.

Education

Main article: Education in Somalia

The Ministry of Education oversees schools in Somalia. About 15% of the government’s money goes to education. Both the Puntland and Somaliland regions have their own education ministries.

Higher education is mostly private. Several universities operate in Somalia, including Mogadishu University, Benadir University, Somalia National University, and others. Religious schools, known as Qur’anic schools, are important for teaching young children and are supported by local communities.

Health

Main article: Health in Somalia

See also: Healthcare in Somalia and Child marriage in Somalia

Before 1991, Somalia had a public healthcare system run by the government. However, during the civil war, much of this system was destroyed. Now, many private clinics and hospitals have been set up by local Somali efforts. Healthcare costs are low, with visits to health centers costing about US$5.72 and hospital stays costing between US$7.83 and US$13.95 per day.

Since the civil war, life expectancy has improved slightly, and more children are being vaccinated against diseases like measles and tuberculosis. Infant and maternal mortality rates have also decreased. There are now more doctors and better access to clean water and sanitation.

Somalia has a low rate of HIV infection, which is thought to be due to the country’s strong Muslim traditions. Most healthcare is now provided by private facilities, but the government is working to rebuild the public healthcare system. Notable hospitals include East Bardera Mothers and Children’s Hospital and Edna Adan Maternity Hospital.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Somalia

Somalia has a rich culture with many interesting traditions. Their architecture includes ancient stone buildings and tombs, showing how people lived long ago. Over time, new styles came from trading with other places.

Architecture

Main article: Somali architecture

Somali architecture is a rich and diverse tradition of engineering and design. It includes ancient stone buildings and tombs, as well as newer styles that mix Somali designs with ideas from other cultures.

Literature

Main article: Literature of Somalia

Somalia has produced many famous poets and writers. Some have become well-known around the world for their stories and poems.

Contemporary

Many modern Somali writers have written novels that people everywhere enjoy. Some have won important prizes for their work.

Music

Main article: Music of Somalia

Somalia has a long history of music. Traditional songs often use special instruments like string instruments and drums. Singers, writers, and musicians work together to create these songs.

Cuisine

Main article: Somali cuisine

Somali food comes from many places because of the country's history of trading. Common foods include rice, pasta, and meats like lamb and chicken. Spices add flavor to many dishes.

People also enjoy flatbreads, stews, and special treats like sweet jelly made with spices and nuts. Coffee and tea are popular drinks.

The time when Italy ruled Somalia brought pasta and lasagna to the south.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Somalia

Football is the most popular sport in Somalia. The country has its own league and cup competitions, and a national team that plays in international matches.

Basketball is also played, and Somalia hosted an international basketball event in 1981. Some Somali athletes have won medals in martial arts competitions like taekwondo and Thai Boxing.