Islam in India

Islam is India's second-largest religion. In a 2011 census, 14.2% of the country's population, or about 172.2 million people, identified as followers of Islam. India has the third-largest number of Muslims in the world. Most of India's Muslims are Sunni, and Shia Muslims make up about 15% of the Muslim population.

Islam first spread among southern communities along the Arab coastal trade routes in Gujarat and on the Malabar Coast, shortly after the religion emerged in the Arabian Peninsula. Later, Islam reached the northern inland of the Indian subcontinent in the 7th century, when Arabs invaded and conquered Sindh. It arrived in Punjab and North India in the 12th century through the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids conquest. Since then, Islam has become part of India's religious and cultural heritage.

Some of the earliest mosques in India were built by seafaring Arab merchants. Three of the first mosques in India are the Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, Gujarat, built before 623 CE; the Cheraman Juma Mosque (629 CE) in Methala, Kerala; and the Palaiya Jumma Palli (or The Old Jumma Masjid, 628–630 CE) in Kilakarai, Tamil Nadu.

According to the legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur in present-day Kerala. It was built on the orders of the last ruler of the Chera dynasty, Tajudeen Cheraman Perumal, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). Tamil Muslims on the eastern coasts also claim that their ancestors converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s.

For Islam in the wider region, see Islam in South Asia. For a book on this subject, see Muslims in India (book).

History

See also: Zuṭṭ and Bawarij

Most Muslims in India belong to South Asian ethnic groups. Genetic studies show they are closely related to non-Muslim Indians, with a small mix from Middle Eastern and Central Asian populations. Some sources say castes among Muslims grew out of the idea of Kafa'a. Ashrafs are seen as higher in status because of their Arab ancestry, while Ajlafs are thought to be converts from Hinduism with lower status. This goes against the Islamic idea that all believers form one community (Ummah), a teaching found in the Farewell Sermon of Muhammad. Many ulema say caste is a cultural practice that contradicts Islam, while others prefer marrying within one's own group. Arab traders visited the Indian subcontinent long before Islam, sailing along the Konkan-Gujarat coast and the Malabar Coast to reach ports in Southeast Asia. According to The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians, a ship carrying Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE, and H. G. Rawlinson says the first Arab Muslims settled there in the late 7th century CE. Local tradition says Islam reached Lakshadweep in 661 CE through Ubaidullah, whose grave is believed to be on Andrott. Other traditions name early mosques at Kodungallur, Kollam, Mangalore, and elsewhere in Kerala Muslim history, linked to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the Chera dynasty, and Malik Dinar, who is believed to have died at Thalangara in Kasaragod. Arab traders also carried the numeral system developed by Indians to the Middle East and Europe, and Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic in the 8th century. Muhammad bin Qasim, at the age of 17, became the first Muslim general to invade the subcontinent in 672 CE, reaching Sindh (Quetta is linked to Quetta in some accounts). Later, the Ghaznavids under Mahmud of Ghazni invaded, and the Ghurids led to the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Under the Sultanate, Indian and Islamic civilizations mixed, and the Hindustani language emerged. In the early 16th century, the Mughal Empire ruled much of northern India. By the 18th century, Mughal power had weakened, and the British East India Company took control of Bengal in 1757 and Mysore in the late 18th century. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was exiled by the British Raj.

Many Muslims took part in the Indian independence movement against British rule, including Titumir, Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai, Ashfaqulla Khan, and Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, known as "Frontier Gandhi." Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal also contributed. Until 1920, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a member of the Indian National Congress, and Muhammad Iqbal supported Hindu–Muslim unity. Mahatma Gandhi opposed dividing India on the basis of religion. The partition of India in 1947 created Pakistan and India, and the Indian Independence Act 1947 set 15 August 1947 as the date. It displaced up to 12.5 million people and caused many deaths, and the violence left lasting mistrust between the two countries. West Bengal became part of India, while East Bengal became part of Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten was the last British Viceroy. In March 2025, the Indian Parliament passed the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, which was introduced by the Bharatiya Janata Party in August 2024. It sparked protests, and critics such as the All India Muslim Personal Law Board and Asaduddin Owaisi said it infringed on minority rights.

Main article: Partition of India

Further information: Indian independence movement

Demographics

Main article: Islam by country § Countries

See also: Rohingya refugees in India, Bangladeshis in India, and Illegal immigration to India

With about 204 million Muslims (2019 estimate), India has the world's third-largest Muslim population and the world's largest Muslim-minority population. India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslims. In 2023, the Government of India estimated that Muslims made up about 14.22% to 14.28% of the country's population.

Muslims are the majority in Lakshadweep (96.2%) and Jammu and Kashmir (68.3%). About 47% of India's Muslims live in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Bihar. Many also live in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, and Uttarakhand.

After India's independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Muslim population in India fell from 42,400,000 (13.3%) in 1941 to 35,400,000 (9.8%) in the 1951 census, because of the Partition of India. About 35 million Muslims stayed after Partition, after Jawaharlal Nehru, then the Prime Minister of India, promised they would be treated fairly. The 1941 Census counted 94.5 million Muslims in Undivided India, which included Pakistan and Bangladesh. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, a former Minister of Law and Justice of India, wrote that moving minorities was the only lasting way to bring peace between communities. A full population exchange did not happen, because the Liaquat–Nehru Pact of 1950 closed the borders of both countries. A large number of Hindus stayed in East Pakistan, now Bangladesh, and in the Sindh province of West Pakistan. In East Punjab in India and West Punjab in Pakistan, there was a full exchange of Muslim and Hindu/Sikh minorities during Partition.

India is home to some 40,000 Rohingya Muslim refugees, about 18,000 of whom are registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). A small number of Uyghurs also live in India, mainly in Jammu and Kashmir. In the Rajya Sabha, Kiren Rijiju, then Union Minister of State for Home, said in 2016 that about 20 million illegal Bangladeshi migrants were believed to be in India. Estimates for illegal immigrants in Assam vary widely, in a state with a population of 3.12 crore in the 2011 Census. Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma said that 7 lakh Muslims were among the 19 lakh people left out of Assam's National Register of Citizens.

Muslims in India have a higher total fertility rate than other religious groups in the country, and their share of the population rose from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% in 2011. The Sachar Committee Report found that Muslim population growth has slowed and will be close to national averages. Pew Research Center projected that India will have 311 million Muslims by 2050. Sociologists point to economic and social factors, such as income, education, and urbanization, as well as family customs like family planning and the fertility period. According to Paul Kurtz, Muslims in India are more resistant to modern contraception than Hindus. Fertility rates are high for both communities in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In a 2021 Pew survey, 6% of Indian Muslims said they were Atheists, while 91% said religion plays a big part in their lives.

Percentage by Districts

There are 36 districts in India where Muslims make up most of the population. They are listed below by percentage:

There are also 45 districts where Muslims are a large minority, making up more than 25% of the population.

Denominations

There are two major denominations among Indian Muslims: Shia Muslims and Sunnis. Over 85% of Indian Muslims belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, and over 13% belong to the Shia branch. Most Indian Sunnis follow the Barelvi movement, which was founded in 1904 by Ahmed Razi Khan of Bareilly to defend traditional Islam as practised in South Asia. The Deobandi movement was established in the 19th century and is named after Deoband, a small town northeast of Delhi. It has been influenced by Wahhabism. In the coastal Konkan region of Maharashtra, Konkani Muslims follow the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence.

Other groups also make up part of India's Muslim community. The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. The Dawoodi Bohra and Khoja are other Shia groups in India. India's Shia population is the world's second-largest after Iran.

Main article: Shia Islam in India

Main article: Dawoodi Bohra

Main article: Khoja

Main article: Sufism in India

Main article: Ahmadiyya

Main article: Islam in South Asia

Society and culture

Each Indian state has a Mufti of the State, who works under the Grand Mufti of India. The Grand Mufti is the most senior religious authority and spiritual leader of Muslims in India. India has many well-known Muslim schools and universities, such as Aligarh Muslim University and Jamia Millia Islamia. Most Indian Muslims are Sunni, and Shia Muslims are a substantial minority. The Deobandi movement, a Sunni movement, began at the Darul Uloom Deoband. Islamic rule in India brought new styles of building. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, built in 1193 CE, was the first mosque built in the Indian subcontinent. India has more than 300,000 active mosques, and the Taj Mahal is a famous Islamic tomb.

Among Indian Muslims, a caste system has developed, even though Islam is against discrimination based on caste. Some scholars have tried to explain this difference between Islamic teaching and Indian Muslim social practice. Since the mid-1970s, communal riots have led many Muslims to live in segregated areas called ghettos. For example, the Juhapura area of Ahmadabad grew quickly after the 2002 riots in Gujarat.

Law, politics, and government

Some family and property matters for Muslims in India, such as marriage, inheritance, and waqf properties, are governed by Muslim Personal Law. This law was developed during British rule and later became part of independent India with some changes. It is not a form of Sharia law but an interpretation of existing Muslim laws within common law. The Supreme Court of India has ruled that Sharia, or Muslim law, takes priority for Muslims over Indian civil law in these matters. The courts generally apply Hanafi Sunni law for Sunnis, while Shia Muslims follow their own law where it differs a lot from Sunni practice. The Indian constitution gives equal rights to all citizens, whatever their religion, and Article 44 recommends a uniform civil code. Many Indian Muslims resist this idea because they see it as a threat to the cultural identity of minority groups. The All India Muslim Personal Law Board was set up to protect Muslim Personal Law, and the Sachar Committee was asked in 2005 to report on the condition of Muslims in India. Goa is an exception, since it has one secular civil code for all its residents, and the Special Marriage Act, 1954 also applies to some Muslims who married civilly. The Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan released a draft recommending that polygamy be made illegal under Muslim Personal Law. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 is debated because it excludes Muslims. Some sources say there has been a growing "climate of fear" under the Bharatiya Janata Party and Modi ministry, though these claims are not supported by everyone.

Several Muslim political parties are active in India, including the All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen, led by Asaduddin Owaisi, the Indian Union Muslim League in Kerala, and the All India United Democratic Front in Assam. Muslims have also held many high offices. Three of the twelve Presidents of the Republic of India were Muslims: Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Several Muslims have served as Chief Justice of India, including Mohammad Hidayatullah, who also served as Vice-President of India and acted as President twice. S. Y. Quraishi was the first Muslim to serve as Chief Election Commissioner of India. The government also used to pay part of the airfare for Hajj pilgrims, but this subsidy was phased out completely by 2018 after a Supreme Court of India decision in 2011. Some Muslim leaders said the subsidy was against Islamic teaching, because the Quran says Hajj should be paid for with a person's own money.

Main article: Haj subsidy

Conflict and controversy

See also: Medieval India, Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, and Religious violence in India

The Somnath temple was first attacked by the Turkic invader Mahmud of Ghazni. It was rebuilt many times after later Muslim rulers destroyed it, including the Mughals under Aurangzeb. Historians and others disagree about why many people in India became Muslims. Some say most Muslims descend from migrants from the Iranian Plateau or from Arabs, though genetic studies dispute this. Others say people converted for practical reasons, such as keeping their jobs or gaining protection. Some say conversion came from Sufi saints and a genuine change of heart, or from people rejecting the Hindu caste strictures. Many historians say most conversions were voluntary, while others point to the violence of the Muslim conquests. Richard M. Eaton notes that attacks on temples were not unusual in medieval India, and that attacks on temples had declined under the Mughal Empire.

See also: Persecution of Muslims, Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent, Religious violence in India, and Violence against Muslims in India

Relations between Hindus and Muslims have a long and complex history, which can be said to have begun with the Umayyad Caliphate's invasion of Sindh in 711. After the Partition of India in 1947, large-scale violence broke out across the nation. In 1992, the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya was demolished, which greatly harmed the sense of harmony between the communities. In the 1990s, many Kashmiri Hindus were forced to leave Kashmir. In 2002, the Gujarat riots caused many deaths. In 2020, the 2020 Delhi riots left more than 50 people dead. Relations with Sikhs have also been difficult. Sikhism emerged in the Punjab during the Mughal period, and in 1606 Guru Arjan was killed by the Mughal emperor Jahangir.

Main article: Islam and Sikhism

See also: Chhota Ghallughara

Indian Muslim News Agencies

The Milli Gazette is a well-known English-language newspaper in India. It shares news, analysis, and views about the Muslim community from an Islamic point of view. All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) mainly speaks for Muslims in India, but it also publishes statements, reports, and newsletters about issues that affect the Muslim community. Jaamiat-e-Ulama-i-Hind (Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind) is one of the oldest and most respected Muslim organizations in India. It shares news and information about social, educational, and religious matters through its publications and media outlets.

Muslim Mirror is a digital media platform that covers news, opinions, and analysis about Muslims in India and around the world. The India Islamic Cultural Centre (IICC) in New Delhi is not mainly a news agency, but it publishes materials, reports, and information about the cultural, educational, and social concerns of the Indian Muslim community. Naus Network is a news channel on YouTube that talks about issues affecting Muslims and other minorities.

Prominent Muslims in India

India is home to many well-known Muslims who have made their mark in many fields. Three Muslims have served as President of India: Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Mohammad Hidayatullah served as Chief Justice of India and as acting President of India on two occasions. Popular Indian actors include Yusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar), Shah Rukh Khan and Aamir Khan. In cricket, which is the most popular sport in India, Mohammad Azharuddin captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Sania Mirza is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player.

Muslims have also helped build some of India's best-known companies. Wipro, Wockhardt and Cipla were founded by Muslims. Muslims are under-represented in the Indian Armed Forces compared to Hindus and Sikhs, but several Muslim military personnel have earned high honours. Abdul Hamid was posthumously awarded the Param Vir Chakra, India's highest military decoration. Abdul Kalam, a respected scientist, was nicknamed the Missile Man of India. Salim Ali was an ornithologist known as the "birdman of India".