Madagascar

Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It includes the island of Madagascar and many smaller islands nearby. It lies off the southeastern coast of Africa. It is the world's fourth-largest island and the second-largest island country. Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo.

Long ago, the land mass called Gondwana, a supercontinent, broke apart. Madagascar split from Africa during the Early Jurassic period, about 180 million years ago. It later separated from the Indian subcontinent about 90 million years ago. Because it was cut off for so long, its plants and animals developed in their own special way. Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot and one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries. Over 90% of its wildlife is endemic, which means it is found nowhere else. The island has a warm climate.

People first settled on Madagascar around 500 to 700 CE. The first settlers were Austronesian peoples, who probably arrived on outrigger canoes from what is now Indonesia. Around the ninth century, Bantu groups crossed the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups kept arriving over time, and each one added to Malagasy culture. Today there are 18 or more recognized peoples of Madagascar. The largest is the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 1700s, the island was ruled by a changing mix of groups that formed alliances. In the early 1800s, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy ended in 1897, when France took control of the island in the annexation of Madagascar. The country gained independence in 1960. Since then, it has had four major periods of government, called republics. It has been a constitutional democracy since 1992. After a political crisis and a military takeover in 2009, Madagascar went through a protracted transition to its fourth and current republic. A democratic government was restored in January 2014. In 2025, a series of mass protests led to a military coup, and Michael Randrianirina became president of a military junta.

Madagascar is a member of the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Malagasy and French are both official languages. Christianity is the main religion, and a significant minority still practices traditional faiths. The UN classifies Madagascar as a least-developed country. Its plans for growth focus on Ecotourism and agriculture, along with more investment in education, health, and private enterprise. The economy grew a lot after the early 2000s, but the gap between rich and poor has grown, and life is still hard for most people. As of 2021, most of the population was considered multidimensionally poor.

Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island is called Madagasikara, and its people are called Malagasy. The origin of the name is uncertain. It is likely foreign and was spread by Europeans in the Middle Ages. If this is true, nobody knows when the local people began using the name. Before Madagasikara, no single Malagasy name was used for the whole island, though some communities had their own names for parts or all of the lands where they lived.

One idea links the name to the word Malay, which refers to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in what is now Indonesia. On a map from 1154 by Muhammad al-Idrisi, the island is called Gesira Malai, which means "Malay island" in Arabic. Greeks knew it as Malai Gesira. This reversed name may be where the modern name started. Another idea says the name is a changed form of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia and an important medieval port on the Indian Ocean. A 13th-century Venetian explorer, Marco Polo, may have mixed up the two places in his writings. A 1609 book by Jerome Megizer tells a story that might explain this. It describes kings from Mogadishu and Adal who sailed to Madagascar, planning to invade the rich islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. A storm pushed them off course. They took over the island and left their name, Magadoxo, on pillars. The Dutch traveler Jan Huyghen van Linschoten also repeated this idea.

The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, has also appeared in historical records. An English document from 1699 mentions passengers from "Malagaskar" arriving in what later became New York City. In 1882, the British newspaper The Graphic used "Malagascar" for the island. It said the word may be of Malay origin and related to Malacca. In 1891, Zanzibari traveler Saleh bin Osman wrote "Malagaskar" when describing his journeys, which included part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. In 1905, Charles Basset wrote that local people called the island Malagasikara and stressed that they were Malagasy, not Madagasy.

History

Main article: History of Madagascar

Archaeologists think the first settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, probably between 350 BCE and 550 CE. This makes Madagascar one of the most recent large lands on Earth to be settled by people. The early settlers cleared forests for farming. They also found giant animals, including giant lemurs and large flightless elephant birds. These animals later died out, partly because of hunting and changes to their homes. Over the centuries, Indian Ocean trade brought Arab traders and zebu cattle to the island. Small kingdoms grew, and by 1800 most people lived in organized states. In the 1800s, King Andrianampoinimerina and his son Radama I joined much of the island together. Radama also signed an agreement with the British to end the slave trade.

Main articles: Malagasy Protectorate and French Madagascar

See also: Madagascar in World War II

France took control of Madagascar in the late 1800s, after fighting and a peace agreement that was disputed. The French made it a colony in 1897. They ended slavery in 1896. Many Malagasy people wanted their country to be independent. The Malagasy Uprising of 1947 was followed by a very hard time for many people. Madagascar became independent on 26 June 1960.

Main articles: Malagasy Republic, Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and Third Republic of Madagascar

Since independence, Madagascar has had four republics, each with a new constitution. The First Republic stayed closely connected to France until protests in 1972 ended it. Military leaders and then Didier Ratsiraka ran the country. The economy fell apart in the late 1970s and 1980s. The Third Republic began in 1992 with many political parties. Later, political crises and a coup in 2009 made life hard for many people. A severe drought led to the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine. In 2025, a series of protests led to the president leaving office. On 17 October 2025, Colonel Michael Randrianirina was sworn in as the new president.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Madagascar and Geology of Madagascar

Madagascar covers 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi). It is the world's 46th-largest country, the second-largest island country, and the fourth-largest island. Most of the island lies between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and between longitudes 43°E and 51°E. To the east are the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius. To the northwest are the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte. The nearest mainland country is Mozambique, to the west. Madagascar has been separated from other continents for a very long time, so its plants and animals developed in their own way. A narrow, steep escarpment runs along the east coast. West of it is the plateau of the Central Highlands. The Central Highlands have the most people on the island. They have rice-growing valleys and grassy hills. They were the homeland of the Merina people and the site of their old capital, Antananarivo. The land slopes down toward the west, where it becomes drier.

Madagascar's weather is shaped by trade winds and monsoons. From November to April it is hot and rainy. From May to October it is cooler and dry. The rainy season often brings tropical cyclones. These storms can damage buildings and local businesses, and sometimes they hurt people. The east coast gets much of the rain that feeds its rainforest. The west and southwest are drier, with a semi-arid climate.

Because the island was cut off for so long, Madagascar has many endemic plants and animals. These are found nowhere else on Earth. About 90% of the plant and animal species there are endemic. For this reason, some ecologists have called Madagascar the "eighth continent." Its lemurs are a good example. Many species are rare, vulnerable, or endangered. People have put a lot of pressure on this wildlife. Since people arrived, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest, mostly through slash-and-burn farming. People have also brought some invasive species to the island. To protect its nature, the country has set aside protected natural areas. In 2007, six of its national parks were named a world heritage site.

Government

Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Cabinet of Madagascar

Main articles: Politics of Madagascar, Foreign relations of Madagascar, and Human rights in Madagascar

Main articles: Regions of Madagascar and Districts of Madagascar

Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic. The people vote for the president, who is the head of state and chooses a prime minister. The Senate and the National Assembly make the laws, but they have little real power in practice. The president and the 151 members of the National Assembly serve five-year terms, and a president can serve no more than three terms. The courts follow civil law and are based on the French system. Court cases often take a long time, so people may wait a long time before their trial. The island has 23 regions. Each region is run by a governor and a regional council. Antananarivo is the administrative capital and the largest city. It sits in the highlands near the center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded it as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625, on the hill of Analamanga. The French made it their colonial administrative center in 1896. It has remained the capital since independence in 1960. The next largest cities are Antsirabe, Toamasina, and Mahajanga.

Since independence from France in 1960, the country's politics have had many ups and downs. There have been protests, disputed elections, an impeachment, two military takeovers, and an assassination. A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina in 2009 became violent. Madagascar was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity, which was replaced by the African Union. The African Union suspended Madagascar in 2009 after power was passed on in a way that broke the country's constitution. Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court. It also has an agreement protecting the United States military. Eleven countries have embassies in Madagascar, and Madagascar has embassies in 16 other countries. Human rights are protected by the Constitution and by agreements such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Some journalists have faced censorship, and some have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news. The armed forces have mostly stayed neutral during political crises. Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations in 1960. In January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar were serving in the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti. In 2015, the World Food Programme started a program to help with food shortages in the south. In 2017, Madagascar signed the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Madagascar and Tourism in Madagascar

Madagascar was still a very poor country in 2018. Corruption, a weak government, unclear laws, and old land rules slowed its growth, but the economy has grown since 2011. In 2017, poverty affected 92% of the people. The United Nations Development Programme reported that 68.4% of people were multidimensionally poor as of 2021. The country also ranked fourth in the world for chronic malnutrition. Tourism focuses on nature, including Madagascar's unique wildlife, national parks, and lemurs. In 2016, 293,000 tourists visited, an increase of 20% from 2015. The country's natural resources include agricultural and mineral products. Farming (including the growing of raffia), mining, fishing, and forestry are important to the economy. In 2017, the top exports were vanilla, nickel metal, cloves, knitted sweaters, and cobalt. Madagascar is the world's main supplier of vanilla, cloves, and ylang-ylang. It supplies 80% of the world's natural vanilla. Other products include coffee, lychees, and shrimp. In 2001, the island provided half of the world's sapphires. This supply was first found near Ilakaka in the late 1990s. Madagascar also has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite, a titanium ore, and important reserves of chromite. Major projects include zircon mining at the Mandena mine by Rio Tinto. Nickel is mined at the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga, and Sherritt International processes it. Heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga are being developed by Madagascar Oil. France is the main trading partner. In May 2003, the US Agency for International Development helped form the Madagascar-US Business Council to support exports of local handicrafts. Most imports come from China, France, Iran, Mauritius, and Hong Kong. They include foodstuffs, fuel, vehicles, electronics, capital goods, and consumer goods.

Main articles: Transport in Madagascar, Telecommunications in Madagascar, and List of newspapers in Madagascar

Most of the roads in Madagascar are unpaved, and many become impassable in the rainy season. Mostly paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo. As of 2023, the World Bank estimated that 17 million people in rural areas lived more than 2 km from a road that can be used in every season. Construction of the Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's first toll highway, began in December 2022. The European Union and the European Investment Bank helped fund it. Antananarivo is linked by rail lines to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka, and Antsirabe. Another line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. In early 2026, a new passenger train service was launched in Antananarivo. The most important seaport is at Toamasina. Mahajanga and Antsiranana are used much less. The government hopes to expand the ports of Antsiranana and Taolagnaro. The newest port, at Ehoala, is managed by Rio Tinto. It will come under state control when the mining project near Tôlanaro is complete. Madagascar Airlines serves the island's many small regional airports. These are often the only practical way to reach remote areas during the rainy season. Running water and electricity are provided by Jirama, which cannot serve the entire population. Fifty-six percent of the country's power comes from hydroelectric plants. The remaining 44% comes from diesel engine generators. Radio is still the main way people get news. Several media outlets are owned by politicians. Internet access has grown quickly. By January 2022, it reached 22.3% of the population, mostly through mobile phones.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Madagascar and List of cities in Madagascar

Only two full population counts, in 1975 and 1993, have been done since independence. The most crowded parts of the island are the Eastern Highlands and the Eastern Coast. The Western Plains have few people. Agriculture has long shaped where people live, and almost 60% of the population lives in rural areas. In 2024, the population was about 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900. It was growing by about 2.4% each year. About 39.3% of people were younger than 15, 57.3% were between 15 and 64, and 3.4% were 65 or older.

Main article: Demographics of Madagascar § Ethnicity

The Malagasy ethnic group makes up over 90% of the population. It is usually divided into 18 subgroups. Recent DNA research found that the average Malagasy person has a nearly equal mix of Southeast Asian and East African genes. Some communities have more of one, or some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry. The Merina of the Central Highlands are the largest subgroup, at about 26% of the population. The largest coastal subgroups are the Betsimisaraka (14.9%), the Tsimihety, and the Sakalava, at 6% each. Chinese, Indian, and Comoran minorities also live in Madagascar, along with a small European population, mostly French. Many of these minority groups have become smaller since the late 20th century. The number of Europeans fell from 68,430 in 1958 to 17,000 about thirty years later.

See also: List of cities in Madagascar

Main articles: Malagasy language and Languages of Madagascar

The Constitution of 2007 recognized three official languages: Malagasy, French, and English. A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 after a constitutional referendum, recognized only Malagasy and French. The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is spoken across the island. It has many dialects that people generally understand one another. It comes from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Maʼanyan language as its closest relative. It includes many Malay and Javanese words. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar was under French control. Madagascar is a francophone country. French is mostly spoken as a second language by educated people and is used for international communication.

Main article: Religion in Madagascar

Christianity is the most widely practiced religion and is strongest in the Highlands. The 1993 national census found that 52% of people followed Indigenous beliefs, 41% were Christian, and 7% were Muslim. Different surveys give different results, because many people mix religious traditions. Many Malagasy honor their ancestors, including through tomb-building and the famadihana, a festive occasion when a family member's remains are re-wrapped in fresh silk. Islam came to the island in the Middle Ages through traders. Hinduism arrived in the late 19th century through Gujarati people from the Saurashtra region of India.

Main article: Healthcare in Madagascar

Medical centers, small clinics, and hospitals are found across the island, but most are in cities, especially Antananarivo. Many people, particularly in rural areas, have little access to medical care and turn to traditional healers. In 2010, the country had 3,150 doctors for a population of 22 million. Child immunizations against diseases such as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased by an average of 60% over the past 20 years. Malaria and schistosomiasis are common. In 2019, a measles outbreak made many people sick. In 2021, more than one million people in southern Madagascar struggled to get enough food. The United Nations warned that this could become the country's first famine, caused by climate change.

Main article: Education in Madagascar

Before the 19th century, education was informal. Children learned practical skills and values such as respect for ancestors and elders. The first formal European-style school opened in 1818 at Toamasina. Over time, schooling expanded. By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had one of the most developed school systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Education policy changed many times after independence. Free and compulsory schooling for children aged 6 to 13 was introduced under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), when thousands of new primary schools were built. Enrollment more than doubled between 1996 and 2006, although the quality of education was weak. The literacy rate was estimated at 75% in 2021.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Madagascar

Each ethnic group in Madagascar has its own beliefs, practices, and ways of life. Still, many customs are shared across the island. These include a common language, traditional beliefs in a creator god, and honouring ancestors. Values such as fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that gives authority to leaders, shape the traditional worldview. Other shared customs include male circumcision, strong family ties, and a belief in magic. Social castes are no longer legally recognized, but a family's caste background can still affect a person's status and opportunities. The island's culture also shows many influences. The valiha, a bamboo tube zither brought by early settlers from southern Borneo, is the most well-known instrument. Houses in Madagascar are similar to those in southern Borneo. Madagascar's national dress is the woven lamba. Southeast Asian cultural influence can be seen in Malagasy cuisine, where rice is eaten at every meal with vegetable or meat dishes. African influence is seen in the sacred importance of zebu cattle, although cattle rustling has become a dangerous crime.

Madagascar has a rich literature of Madagascar tradition, especially speech-making, including hainteny (poetry), kabary (public speaking), and ohabolana (proverbs). The epic poem Ibonia has been passed down for centuries. In the 20th century, Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo is considered Africa's first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison was part of a new wave of Malagasy poetry. The island has a strong musical heritage with many regional styles, such as the coastal salegy and the highland hiragasy. Crafts are common, including silk and raffia weaving, wood carving, and paper making. The Zafimaniry people's woodworking was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List in 2008. The Antemoro people make decorated paper, and artists such as Madame Zo use local textile traditions. Traditional sports include Moraingy, a form of hand-to-hand combat, and tolon-omby, the wrestling of zebu cattle. The fanorona, a board game, is popular in the Highlands. Rugby union is the national sport, and Soccer is also loved. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling. Madagascar first sent athletes to the Olympic Games in 1964. The island's Scouting is run by its own local federation. Antananarivo has hosted several African basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship, the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women, the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship, the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship, and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women. At the 2019 African Games, Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal. Malagasy food mixes Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and European influences. Popular drinks include Three Horses Beer, the most popular beer on the island.